«Tα πρώτα θύματα της κλιματικής αλλαγής είναι οι φτωχοί και ιδιαίτερα τα άπορα και ορφανά παιδιά της Αφρικής...» Πατριάρχης Αλεξανδρείας Θεόδωρος

Η Κλιματική αλλαγή και η Αγία και Μεγάλη Σύνοδος

Του μητροπολίτη Ζιμπάμπουε Σεραφείμ Κυκκώτη

ΒΗΜΑ ΟΡΘΟΔΟΞΙΑΣ / Στον Ορθόδοξο Αμπελώνα της Αφρικής

Οι εργασίες της Συνδιάσκεψης του ΟΗΕ για τη Κλιματική Αλλαγή στο Μαράκες του Μαρόκου που ξεκίνησαν στις 7 Νοεμβρίου και θα ολοκληρωθούν στις 18 Νοεμβρίου (COP22), δίνουν νέες ελπίδες για να προστατευθεί η Ανθρωπότητα καi το μέλλον της επιβίωσης του Πλανήτη μας.

Στην Συνδιάσκεψη συμμετέχουν Αντιπροσωπείες 197 Κυβερνήσεων, Διεθνείς Οργανισμοί και ένας μεγάλος αριθμός ΜΚΟς που ασχολούνται με θέματα της Κλιματικής Αλλαγής, ως επίσης και Ακαδημαϊκά Ιδρύματα, Επιχειρήσεις και Βιομηχανίες, το Π.Σ.Ε και εκπρόσωποι Θρησκειών.

Σε διάφορα επίπεδα θα εξετασθούν τα θέματα της εφαρμογής του Πρωτοκόλλου του Κυότο μέχρι το 2020, θέματα εφαρμογής των προηγούμενων αποφάσεων για δράση για τη Κλιματική Αλλαγή, συζήτηση για τον τρόπο της εφαρμογής της νέας Παγκόσμιας Συμφωνίας του Παρισιού το προηγούμενο έτος (COP21), οικονομικά θέματα για στήριξη των διαφόρων προγραμμάτων για τη Κλιματική Αλλαγή, παρουσίαση των εκθέσεων Επιτροπών για θέματα Νέας Τεχνολογίας, Επιστημονικά πορίσματα για να περιορισθεί η συνεχόμενη αύξηση της μόλυνσης της ατμόσφαιρας που οδηγεί στην συνεχή αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας του Πλανήτη μας με καταστροφικές συνέπειες για την επιβίωση μας. 

Ταυτόχρονα οργανώνονται διάφορες συζητήσεις στρογγύλης τραπέζης για να παρουσιασθούν οι νέες προσπάθειες για κοινή δράση για τα προβλήματα της Κλιματικής Αλλαγής, λειτουργούν εκθεσιακοί χώροι για πηγές ενέργειας που δεν προκαλούν μόλυνση (πράσινη οικονομία), ως επίσης και ανακοινώσεις Κυβερνήσεων για νέες δράσεις είτε από Αρχηγούς Κρατών είτε από τους Υπουργούς Περιβάλλοντος.

Σε ειδική δημοσιογραφική διάσκεψη και σε Πάνελ για θέματα της Κλιματικής Αλλαγής παρουσιάστηκε η θέση των Ορθόδοξης Εκκλησίας κατά τις πρόσφατες εργασίες της Αγίας και Μεγάλης Συνόδου στη Κρήτη το περασμένο Ιούνιο, ως επίσης και Μηνύματα του Οικουμενικού μας Πατριάρχη κ.κ. Βαρθολομαίου και του Πάπα και Πατριάρχη Αλεξανδρείας και πάσης Αφρικής κ.κ. Θεοδώρου (η COP22 πραγματοποιείται στην Αφρικανική Ήπειρον).

Στο επίσημο κείμενο τής Ἀγίας κα Μεγάλης Συνόδου με θέμα «Η συμβολή της Ορθοδόξου Εκκλησίας εις επικράτησιν της ειρήνης, της δικαιοσύνης, της ελευθερίας, της αδελφοσύνης και της αγάπης μεταξύ των λαών, και άρσιν των φυλετικών και λοιπών διακρίσεων», για το θέμα της Οικολογικής κρίσης τονίζεται ότι «Ο πόθος της συνεχούς αυξήσεως της ευημερίας και η άμετρος κατανάλωσις αναποφεύκτως οδηγούν εις την δυσανάλογον χρήσιν και την εξάντλησιν των φυσικών πόρων. Η δημιουργηθείσα υπό του Θεού κτίσις, η οποία εδόθη εις τον άνθρωπον ᾽εργάζεσθαι και φυλάσσειν᾽ αυτήν (πρβλ. Γεν. 2.15), υφίσταται τας συνεπείας της αμαρτίας του ανθρώπου:

«Τη γαρ ματαιότητι η κτίσις υπετάγη, ουχ εκούσα, αλλά διά τον υποτάξαντα, επ᾿ ελπίδι ότι και αυτή η κτίσις ελευθερωθήσεται από της δουλείας της φθοράς εις την ελευθερίαν της δόξης των τέκνων του Θεού. Οίδαμεν γαρ ότι πάσα η κτίσις συστενάζει και συνωδίνει άχρι του νυν» (Ρωμ. 8.20-22). Η οικολογική κρίσις, η οποία συνδέεται προς τας κλιματολογικάς αλλαγάς και την υπερθέρμανσιν του πλανήτου, καθιστά επιτακτικόν το χρέος της Εκκλησίας όπως συμβάλη, διά των εις την διάθεσιν αυτής πνευματικών μέσων, εις την προστασίαν της δημιουργίας του Θεού εκ των συνεπειών της ανθρωπίνης απληστίας.

Η απληστία διά την ικανοποίησιν των υλικών αναγκών οδηγεί εις την πνευματικήν πτώχευσιν του ανθρώπου και εις την καταστροφήν του περιβάλλοντος. Δεν πρέπει να λησμονήται ότι ο φυσικός πλούτος της γης δεν είναι περιουσία του ανθρώπου, αλλά του Δημιουργού : «Του Κυρίου η γη και το πλήρωμα αυτής, η οικουμένη και πάντες οι κατοικούντες εν αυτή» (Ψαλμ. 23,1). Ούτως, η Ορθόδοξος Εκκλησία τονίζει την προστασίαν της δημιουργίας του Θεού διά της καλλιεργείας της ευθύνης του ανθρώπου έναντι του θεοσδότου περιβάλλοντος και διά της προβολής των αρετών της ολιγαρκείας και της εγκρατείας. Οφείλομεν να ενθυμώμεθα ότι όχι μόνον αι σημεριναί, αλλά και αι μελλοντικαί γενεαί έχουν δικαίωμα επί των φυσικών αγαθών, τα οποία μας εχάρισεν ο Δημιουργός».

Eις το πολυσήμαντο Μήνυμά του ο Οικουμενικός μας Πατριάρχης κ. Βαρθολομαίος, μεταξύ άλλων επισημαίνει, «τη αναγκαιότητα της συνεργασίας και της ενότητας των Κυβερνήσεων για κοινές άμεσες δράσεις για να προστατευθεί η Ανθρωπότητα και ο Πλανήτης μας από τα προβλήματα της Κλιματικής Αλλαγής». Εις το Μήνυμα του τονίζεται επίσης ότι «η εφαρμογή της Παγκόσμιας συμφωνίας του Παρισιού του προηγούμενου έτους από όλους θα αποτελέσει δυναμική έκφραση της κοινής θέληση των Κρατών του Πλανήτη μας για την ενίσχυση της παγκόσμιας Ασφάλειας και της ειρηνικής συνύπαρξης των Λαών και της ευημερίας όλων μας». 

Εις το μήνυμα του ο Πάπας και Πατριάρχης Αλεξανδρείας και πάσης Αφρικής κ.κ. Θεόδωρος , μεταξύ άλλων, υπογραμμίζει ότι «τα πρώτα θύματα των προβλημάτων της κλιματικής αλλαγής είναι οι φτωχοί και ιδιαίτερα τα άπορα και ορφανά παιδιά της Αφρικής και των φτωχών χωρών στην Ασία και στην Λατινική Αμερική, εκεί δηλαδή που οι Χριστιανοί της Ευρώπης εισήγαγαν το θεσμό της αποικιοκρατίας και της δουλείας».

 

Calling for immediate global ceasefire - UN chief on COVID-19 // Cameroon rebels declare coronavirus ceasefire

Calling for immediate global ceasefire - UN chief on COVID-19



Cameroon rebels declare coronavirus ceasefire

There are fears people who have fled their homes in the conflict will not be able to get medical help / Getty Images

bbc.com
 

A separatist militia in Cameroon is to down its weapons for a fortnight so people can be tested for coronavirus.

The Southern Cameroons Defence Forces (Socadef) said its ceasefire would come into effect from Sunday as "a gesture of goodwill".
It is so far the only armed group among many operating in Cameroon's English-speaking regions to have heeded the UN's call for a global ceasefire.
The fighters say they are marginalised in the majority French-speaking nation.
For the three years, they have been fighting government forces in the Anglophone regions with the aim of creating a breakaway state called "Ambazonia".

• BBC Africa Live: News from across the continent
• Red Dragons and Tigers - the rebels fighting for independence
• Cameroon music icon Manu Dibango dies of coronavirus

But there is no indication that one of the biggest rebel group - Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF) - is to follow suit and declare a ceasefire.
Chief mediator Alexandre Liebeskind, from the conflict resolution group Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, told the BBC that the ADF had refused to join the negotiations.
"They are the only group which refused to join the process,” he said.
But he added that he hoped other groups would follow Socadef's example.

The BBC's West Africa reporter Chi Chi Izundu says this move by one Anglophone separatist group will not bring the long and bloody conflict to an end, but could be a source of hope in otherwise dark times.
Fighting in the North-West and South-West regions has killed at least 3,000 people and forced more than 700,000 people from their homes, thousands fleeing across the border into Nigeria.
Many displaced people could be in danger of contracting coronavirus and not receiving treatment.
Cameroon's health ministry has so far has confirmed 75 cases of the virus - and recorded its first death earlier this week.

Ending AIDS as a public health threat by 2030: Scientific Developments from the 2016 INTEREST Conference in Yaoundé, Cameroon

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Abstract

The underpinning theme of the 2016 INTEREST Conference held in Yaoundé, Cameroon, 3–6 May 2016 was ending AIDS as a public health threat by 2030. Focused primarily on HIV treatment, pathogenesis and prevention research in resource-limited settings, the conference attracted 369 active delegates from 34 countries, of which 22 were in Africa. Presentations on treatment optimization, acquired drug resistance, care of children and adolescents, laboratory monitoring and diagnostics, implementation challenges, HIV prevention, key populations, vaccine and cure, hepatitis C, mHealth, financing the HIV response and emerging pathogens, were accompanied by oral, mini-oral and poster presentations. Spirited plenary debates on the UNAIDS 90-90-90 treatment cascade goal and on antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis took place. Joep Lange career guidance sessions and grantspersonship sessions attracted early career researchers. At the closing ceremony, the Yaoundé Declaration called on African governments; UNAIDS; development, bilateral, and multilateral partners; and civil society to adopt urgent and sustained approaches to end HIV by 2030.

 

Introduction

The goal to end AIDS as a public health threat by 2030 [1] was the underpinning theme of the 10th International Workshop on HIV Treatment, Pathogenesis, and Prevention Research in Resource-Limited Settings (2016 INTEREST Conference) held in Yaoundé, Cameroon, 3–6 May 2016. The meeting attracted 369 active delegates from 34 countries of which 22 were in Africa (Cameroon, South Africa, Nigeria, Cote D’Ivoire, Kenya, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Ghana, Senegal, Tanzania, Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Liberia, Malawi, Namibia, Rwanda and Swaziland). Spirited plenary debates on the UNAIDS 90-90-90 (90-90-90 refers to the targets of 90% of people living with HIV knowing their serostatus, 90% of those who know they are HIV-positive being on antiretroviral treatment [ART] and 90% of those on ART achieving viral suppression. This translates into 73% of all people living with HIV being virally suppressed) treatment cascade goal for 2020 [2] and on antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) took place. There were presentations on treatment optimization, acquired drug resistance, care of children and adolescents, laboratory monitoring and diagnostics, implementation challenges, HIV prevention, key populations, vaccine and cure, hepatitis C, mHealth, financing the HIV response and emerging pathogens [3].

In addition to oral, mini-oral and poster presentations, early morning Joep Lange research career guidance sessions saw mid-career and senior investigators explain how they got started on a research career and give advice on how to get funded, choose a mentor and get published. Parallel research grantspersonship sessions were presented by ANRS (France Recherche Nord & Sud Sidahepatites); Fogarty International Center, US National Institutes of Health; and EDCTP (European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership).

 

HIV in Cameroon

Cameroon’s Minister of Public Health, André Mama Fouda, opened the conference. Dr JB Elat, Permanent Secretary of the National AIDS Programme, presented an overview of HIV in Cameroon. HIV prevalence in 2011 was 4.3%, with urban populations and women disproportionately affected: 5.6% of women versus 2.9% of men. Compared to the general population, men who have sex with men (MSM) have 8–14× higher (24–44%), truck drivers have 5× higher (16%) and female sex workers (FSW) have 6× higher (36%) HIV prevalence. Clients of FSW account for 36% of new HIV infections annually. After Cameroon’s ART programme began in 2000, HIV prevalence fell by 20% between 2004 and 2011 from 5.5% to 4.3%. Prenatal consultations for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) increased steadily from 2009, with attendance reaching 74% in 2015. Between 2005 and 2015, the number of people on ART increased 10-fold and approximately 7,000 children now receive ART. In 2015, 882,639 Cameroonians were tested for HIV. Cameroon aims to increase access to HIV testing and treatment services, reduce stigma, strengthen supply chains, tailor HIV prevention for key populations and build civil society capacity. Poor retention in care remains a weak link in Cameroon’s progress towards 90-90-90 [4].

 

Achieving 90-90-90

Passionate debate presenting opposing viewpoints on 90-90-90 saw pessimists emphasize factors preventing achievement of the Fast-Track Initiative targets: insufficient resources (human, infrastructure, financial), inability to reach all people living with HIV (PLHIV) and retain them in care, risk of emerging drug resistance and international donor fatigue. Optimists highlighted the 17 million PLHIV on ART globally, opportunities to halt the HIV epidemic now and examples of countries close to achieving 73% viral suppression targets. Although achieving 90-90-90 is judged desirable, during the debate more conference participants became convinced the proposed time frame is too short.

The first 90: HIV testing

More than 150 million HIV tests are conducted in low- and middle-income countries annually and although the goal of diagnosing 90% of PLHIV is achievable, testing must be performed with 100% accuracy because of the profound consequences of misdiagnosis at both the individual and population level [5]. Outreach programmes are necessary for marginalized, stigmatized, often criminalized and hard to reach key populations. Community-based testing can reach healthy people early in their infection and link them to care [6]. Identifying all HIV+ children and adolescents requires case-finding approaches for chronic HIV survivors, intensified facility-based testing and decentralized and simplified HIV testing at point of care [7].

The second 90: ART

The World Health Organization recommends ART be offered immediately to everyone diagnosed with HIV infection, regardless of their CD4⁺ T-cell count measuring immune status [8]. Globally, 17 million people (46% of PLHIV) are on ART [9]. Voluntary licensing is enabling generic companies to provide antiretroviral (ARV) drugs in effective, well tolerated, and quality-assured individual or combination formulations for 100–130 USD per year. Voluntary licensing of drugs such as dolutegravir and tenofovir alafenamide may reduce this cost to 60 USD/year; however, more efficacy and safety data in pregnant women and HIV–TB-coinfected patients are needed [10]. Robust supply chains are essential to prevent stock-outs and ensure continuity of ART. Fulfilling high-income countries’ commitment to spend 0.7% of gross national income on overseas development assistance [11] can assist resource-limited countries but increasing domestic health-care funding in sub-Saharan Africa to reach the Abuja target of 15% of annual government expenditures being devoted to health will reduce donor dependency and facilitate sustainable programmes [12]. Building on the global success of generic ART, generic versions of drugs for tuberculosis, cancer and hepatitis B and C could facilitate drug access for people in resource-limited settings around the world at very affordable prices.

The third 90: viral suppression

Tracking viral suppression requires rapid scale-up of viral load monitoring, necessitating improved efficiencies in sample collection, transportation and laboratory performance; timely transmission of results to clinics and patients; and rapid appropriate action [13]. Treatment retention in Africa at 36 months is estimated at only 65% [14]. Poor adherence leads to drug resistance [15], requiring effective interventions, including mHealth and group delivery, to support retention in care and adherence. Innovations must be anchored in a comprehensive understanding of the multiple barriers facing people on ART, including adolescents who have important retention and adherence challenges.

The WHO recommends that ART scale-up be accompanied by high-quality HIV drug resistance surveillance, achieved by investing in human and laboratory resources, innovative and efficient technical approaches, robust supply chains and quality assurance measures. Political and community commitment is needed to overcome limited laboratory capacity in sub-Saharan Africa and support studies identifying suitable ARV options. These include the ultra-deep pyrosequencing work showing that protease inhibitors and mara-viroc are likely to be effective in young Cameroonian children (the author of this abstract received the Joep Lange award for the top-scoring abstract by an African scientist at the 10th INTEREST Conference) [16], as are protease inhibitors in Ugandan children [17].

 

HIV prevention

More than 10 million voluntary medical male circumcisions (VMMC) have been performed, with high adult MC prevalence countries moving to establish sustainable VMMC HIV prevention programmes focused on early infant and early adolescent MC [18].

PrEP with ARV drugs has achieved regulatory approval in South Africa and Kenya, following WHO guidance recommending PrEP when HIV incidence is 3% or more [8]. Follow-on studies and demonstration projects of oral PrEP among serodiscordant couples and MSM have shown higher adherence than in trial settings, possibly because people know that they are taking an effective product [19]. Novel products and delivery options under investigation include injectables that would be taken every 2 to 3 months, vaginal gel and ring formulations, and monoclonal antibodies. PrEP works for anyone experiencing a high risk of HIV exposure during a specific time of his or her life. A debate on whether Africa was ready for PrEP persuaded some who were sure it was ready to wonder whether regulatory, logistical, equity and other issues had all been adequately addressed. Importantly, PrEP implementation requires intensified investment in HIV testing strategies across Africa, which would result in the increased knowledge of serostatus that can improve entry into the 90-90-90 treatment cascade.

 

Vaccine and cure

The search for a vaccine, following the promising results of RV 144 [20], includes active and passive approaches to HIV prevention. Clade-specific trials in South Africa and elsewhere are part of the pox-protein public-private partnership (P5) evaluating pox-protein candidates. Hypothesis-generating Phase IIb trials are underway of passive immunisation strategies involving monoclonal antibodies using trivalent and tetravalent vectors to obtain broader coverage against HIV [21]. Research to understand differences in viral reservoirs with implications for cure strategies has found that Ugandans without HIV infection have increased immune activation and lymph node pathology that resembles early HIV infection among patients in Minnesota, USA [22]. If they acquire HIV in an environment where life-long exposure to various pathogens already predisposes them to high levels of T-cell activation, they may develop a larger HIV reservoir leading to persistent immune activation, subsequent lymph node fibrosis and reduced immune reconstitution. Pre-existing T-cell activation thus may account for population differences in responsiveness to immune therapy strategies, with fibrosis limiting diffusion of therapeutic agents into lymph nodes where the virus replicates.

 

Key populations

Success in bringing down HIV prevalence among sex workers in Rwanda, Burkina Faso, Kenya and Namibia highlights data gaps on successful interventions among men involved in sex work, regular partners of female sex workers and girls under 18 years who receive money or goods in exchange for sexual services. Exciting new developments include studies of PrEP use, integration of HIV and sexual and reproductive health services, and use of mobile technology, social media and biometric measures to assist in studying mobile sex work populations. Striking data on the use of heroin, tramadol and other opioids have led to the African Union Plan of Action on Drug Control that recognizes the burden of HIV and hepatitis C among people who inject drugs in Africa. Political barriers to holistic harm reduction remain for illicit drugs and for alcohol, a psychoactive substance with dependence-producing properties that has been strongly linked to HIV risk in Africa and around the world [23]. MSM have high HIV risks and continue to be criminalized in many African countries, making it difficult to reach them with services. In eight African countries, between 25 and 65% of these men aged 18–19 years are meeting male sexual partners online [24], suggesting that social media and mobile platforms could help increase their access to HIV prevention and treatment.

 

Emerging pathogens – lessons learned for and from HIV

The Ebola epidemic of 2014–2015 and epidemics of re-emerging pathogens, such as Zika and Lassa Fever, have shown that high-quality studies can run alongside the outbreak response, but health-care systems must be strengthened now before more epidemics occur. Designing and running Ebola clinical trials proved challenging in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. In Guinea, a ‘ring vaccination’ trial design was used to evaluate a vaccine candidate, with real-time modifications to take account of the rapidly changing epidemic and logistical issues [25]. The impact of favipiravir on Ebola virus disease was evaluated in a single arm, proof-of-concept trial that found it well-tolerated but could not draw firm conclusions about efficacy [26]. Ideally, outbreaks of emerging and re-emerging pathogens should be anticipated and potential drugs and vaccines for them investigated on an ongoing basis so that efficacy trials can be initiated quickly when an outbreak occurs. Engaging stakeholders, including community stakeholders, at all stages of a clinical trial contributes to robust trial design, facilitates trial conduct by addressing rumours and enhancing participant retention, and helps ensure ownership of the results for action [27]. Addressing ethical issues is key to ensuring that studies are conducted ethically, communities support them and post-trial legacies are assured [28]. Robust public health infrastructure, appropriate legislation and community involvement were key in containing an Ebola outbreak of 20 cases in Nigeria and subsequent health-care system investments have upgraded disease surveillance, research infrastructure and treatment facilities [29].

 

Conclusions

Although ART coverage in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 24% in 2010 to 54% in 2015, reaching a regional total of 10.3 million people [9], late diagnosis of HIV infection, loss to follow-up and poor ART adherence contributed to 790,000 people dying of AIDS-related causes in 2014. New adult HIV infections remain a concern: 25% are adolescent girls and young women and more than 20% are from key populations. An estimated 25.5 million people are living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa, with women accounting for 56% [9]. There has been a 48% decline in new HIV infections among children in the 21 Global Plan priority countries [30], but 190,000 African children acquired HIV infection in 2014 [31].

The 10th INTEREST Conference heard a call for leadership and activism among HIV investigators and physicians to show global solidarity with PLHIV worldwide and to ensure that resources are used effectively. Sub-Saharan Africa loses over 150 billion USD/year through illicit financial flows [32], corruption and money laundering [12]. This money could replace international donations and fund health care throughout the continent. At the closing ceremony, the Yaoundé Declaration [33] (Additional file 1) was read out, calling on African governments; UNAIDS; development, bilateral, and multilateral partners; and civil society to adopt urgent and sustained approaches to end HIV by 2030 [34,35].

 

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Wendy Smith (Wordsmiths International Ltd, Wells, UK) for providing meeting notes that were used as background materials for writing the manuscript. The INTEREST 2016 organizers acknowledge the support of the Ministry of Public Health, Cameroon; the National Institutes of Health and the Fogarty International Center, USA; the ANRS (France Recherche Nord & Sud Sidahepatites); and the following companies: Gilead Sciences, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, AbbVie, ViiV Healthcare, Roche and Mylan. 

See also

The History of AIDS in Africa
AIDS (tag in our blog)

 

Footnotes

Additional file

Additional file 1: The Yaoundé Declaration can be found at https://www.intmedpress.com/uploads/documents/3939_Hankins_Addfile1.pdf

Disclosure statement

All 12 authors reviewed previous drafts of the manuscript and approve its contents. None of the authors have a conflict of interest, with the exception of CABB of the company Virology Education that provided logistical support for the conference. 

 

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United Nations: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

United Nations

Climate change is now affecting every country on every continent. It is disrupting national economies and affecting lives, costing people, communities and countries dearly today and even more tomorrow. Weather patterns are changing, sea levels are rising, weather events are becoming more extreme and greenhouse gas emissions are now at their highest levels in history. Without action, the world’s average surface temperature is likely to surpass 3 degrees centigrade this century. The poorest and most vulnerable people are being affected the most.

Affordable, scalable solutions are now available to enable countries to leapfrog to cleaner, more resilient economies. The pace of change is quickening as more people are turning to renewable energy and a range of other measures that will reduce emissions and increase adaptation efforts. Climate change, however, is a global challenge that does not respect national borders. It is an issue that requires solutions that need to be coordinated at the international level to help developing countries move toward a low-carbon economy.

To strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, countries adopted the Paris Agreement at the COP21 in Paris, which went into force in November of 2016. In the agreement, all countries agreed to work to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees centigrade. As of April 2018, 175 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement and 10 developing countries had submitted their first iteration of their national adaptation plans for responding to climate change.

Climate Action Summit 2019

The Secretary-General will convene a Climate Action Summit in September 2019 to bring climate action to the top of the international agenda. Mr. Luis Alfonso de Alba, a former Mexican diplomat, will be his Special Envoy to lead its preparations.

The Summit will focus on the heart of the problem – the sectors that create the most emissions and the areas where building resilience could make the biggest difference – as well as provide leaders and partners the opportunity to demonstrate real climate action and showcase their ambition.

To read about the commitments that regions, cities, businesses, investors and civil society pledged during the Global Climate Action Summit in California, September 2018, click here.

Facts and Figures

As of April 2018, 175 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement and 168 parties had communicated their first nationally determined contributions to the UN framework convention on Climate Change Secretariat.
    As of April 2018, 10 developing countries had successfully completed and submitted their first iteration of their national adaptation plans for responding to climate change.
    Developed country parties continue to make progress towards the goal of jointly mobilizing $100 billion annually by 2020 for mitigation actions.

Thanks to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change we know:

    From 1880 to 2012, average global temperature increased by 0.85°C. To put this into perspective, for each 1 degree of temperature increase, grain yields decline by about 5 per cent. Maize, wheat and other major crops have experienced significant yield reductions at the global level of 40 megatons per year between 1981 and 2002 due to a warmer climate.
    Oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished and sea level has risen.From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded due to warming and ice melted. The Arctic’s sea ice extent has shrunk in every successive decade since 1979, with 1.07 million km² of ice loss every decade
    Given current concentrations and on-going emissions of greenhouse gases, it is likely that by the end of this century, the increase in global temperature will exceed 1.5°C compared to 1850 to 1900 for all but one scenario. The world’s oceans will warm and ice melt will continue. Average sea level rise is predicted as 24 – 30cm by 2065 and 40-63cm by 2100. Most aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries even if emissions are stopped
    Global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) have increased by almost 50 per cent since 1990
    Emissions grew more quickly between 2000 and 2010 than in each of the three previous decades
    It is still possible, using a wide array of technological measures and changes in behavior, to limit the increase in global mean temperature to two degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels
    Major institutional and technological change will give a better than even chance that global warming will not exceed this threshold.

Is the African Union Still Focused on Child Soldiers?

Sandra Oder, Senior Researcher, Conflict Management and Peacebuilding Division, ISS Pretoria (2012)
ISS Africa

It is just over a decade since the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) began its engagement with the issue of children and armed conflict, noting that this had serious consequences for peace and stability. The UNSC reacted partly in response to the fact that the decrease in the number of armed conflicts on the African continent did not result in a decline in the use of children as combatants. The situation remained unchanged in spite of an international architecture that protects children affected by armed conflict, especially those associated with armed forces or groups. Given that out of an estimated 250 000 child soldiers worldwide, the majority are found in Africa, the question should be asked whether the AU is proactive enough in this regard.

Since 1999, the UNSC has strengthened its focus on children and armed conflict and has passed a number of related resolutions. A robust plan to monitor violations of the rights of children affected by armed conflict has been operationalised through the UNSC`s Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism, which was formalised in 2005 through Resolution 1612. Among other things, this resolution called for the creation of a monitoring and reporting mechanism for the implementation of action plans and for a concrete, time-bound commitment by parties to conflicts to halt violations of children`s rights. Although it has its weaknesses, the mechanism provides a strong framework within which civil society can document the violations of children`s rights and structure its advocacy to a wider global audience. But has the AU sufficiently prioritised the plight of child soldiers?

Although global efforts to protect children during armed conflict should be applauded, one cannot pin one`s hopes on the UNSC to effectively deal with matters of a sensitive nature that may touch on sovereignty issues. Given last year`s debacles in the Libyan and Ivorian crises, the credibility of the UNSC may have been dented in dealing with peace and security matters in Africa. Given the circumstances it would be logical for the AU to assume a greater moral responsibility in dealing with the issue of child soldiers in a process that reflects its own abilities and strengths and fills the gaps that currently exist in global mechanisms.

In the past two decades, a number of UN reports have noted with concern that the character and tactics of armed conflict are changing. These developments have created new threats to children – according to reports, an increasing number of actors in conflicts use children as terrorists and suicide bombers. However, the AU has not clearly defined its own policies in this regard.

Ironically, Africa is the only continent with a region-specific child rights instrument, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, but arguably has the worst record for protecting the rights of children during conflict. While built on the same principles as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the AU Children`s Charter highlights issues of special importance in the African context. Article 22 encourages states parties to respect and ensure respect for the rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts that affect the child, as well as to take all necessary measures to ensure that no child shall take a direct part in hostilities. Further, it requires states parties, in accordance with their obligations under international humanitarian law, to protect the civilian population in armed conflicts and ensure the protection and care of children who are affected by armed conflicts. Such rules also apply to children in situations of internal armed conflicts, tension and strife. 

 

Photo from here

Pursuing a child protection architecture at the AU has great advantages. As clearly recognised in Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the AU should complement the efforts of the UNSC in the maintenance of peace and security, and in particular in dealing with the issue of child soldiers. Unfortunately, despite encouragement from the UN, the AU has engaged only in an ad hoc manner with the issue.

Decentralising the operational aspects of protecting children during armed conflicts to the AU makes sense, and should ease the burden on the UN. It would also place greater responsibility on African states to deal with the issue of child soldiers. To redeem itself from its non-committal stance on issues related to the rights of children, the AU has to develop a coherent strategy and offer robust leadership to pressure deviant states and armed groups to comply with international law.

Firstly, because the AU is nearer to where atrocities are committed, it can use its legitimacy and credibility as assets, representing consensus on the continent`s wish to deal with the problem of child soldiers, which has become a typical African phenomenon. While the AU`s credibility could arguably be eroded by political exigencies, it is imperative that it formulates and pursues a coherent strategy to deal with a problem that will continue to grow if not effectively addressed. Of course, when pursuing such a policy any decisions adopted are based on consensus and thus are likely to be compromises based on the lowest common denominator. Ideally, however, the continental body should be able to pursue its policy on children and armed conflict, react to events, and have the flexibility needed to deal with situations of armed conflict involving the recruitment of children as they unfold. Currently the AU relies on the global mechanism, which has been noted as being flawed.

Secondly, with the growing involvement of the AU in peace enforcement and peacekeeping, which often involve dealing with perpetrators of violations against children, child-related policies need to be seen as shaping decisions and providing technical support towards a common goal. In particular, guidelines should be developed that integrate child protection into the continental body`s interventions, including mediation and peace support operations. Along these lines, the August 2012 report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict calls for ‘a systematic approach to engagement with the children and armed conflict agenda, in light of the Union`s increasingly multifaceted role in prevention, mediation and stabilisation`. In light of this, it would be interesting to examine how the AU is responding to the continued recruitment of children in the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Somalia and Sudan.

A reversal in roles is required where the continental body takes the lead in developing best practice and strengthening the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism process. This would clearly involve bringing pressure to bear on its member states on the question of accountability, since fighting impunity is necessary to ensure that violations do not recur. The AU could, for instance, require states in which violations of children`s rights have been reported by the continental monitoring mechanism to criminalise such violations in domestic law and prosecute them via national jurisdictions. It could also build on its existing protection mechanisms where training packages on children and armed conflict for civilian and uniformed personnel could be developed. A designated AU Special Representative on Children and Armed Conflict could be considered. Thus, instead of putting the global mechanism at the centre of dealing with the problem of African child soldiers, the AU should instead take the lead in dealing with this persistent phenomenon. If it fails to do so it risks losing its credibility as the guarantor of African peace and security. 

Africa on the road to industrial progress

 

Li Yong, Director-General of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Photo: Africa Renewal/Eleni Mourdoukoutas

 

By: Kingsley Ighobor

From Africa Renewal: 

August - November 2017

 

As the director general of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Li Yong leads a specialised agency that promotes industrial development, inclusive globalization and environmental sustainability. Recently in New York, Mr. Yong took part in a special meeting on “innovation in infrastructure development and sustainable industrialization” in developing countries and countries with special needs. He spoke with Africa Renewal’s Kingsley Ighobor on a range of issues pertaining to Africa’s industrialization. Here are the excerpts:

 

Africa Renewal: You are attending a meeting on industrialization in developing countries, which includes many African countries. How does Africa fit in the picture?

Li Yong: The ECOSOC [UN’s Economic and Social Council] meeting is important because of SDG 9, which calls for inclusive sustainable industrialization, innovation and infrastructure. Africa has to compete within the global value chain, the manufacturing value addition and with the growth and speed of other regions. Two-thirds of the least developed countries are in Africa. Due to underdevelopment of the industrial sector, some countries are not growing fast enough.

What are the factors hindering Africa’s industrialization?

The sudden drop in commodity prices caused problems because it lowered the competitiveness of commodities-dependent countries.

But commodity prices dropped only recently.

No, not just recently. Let’s say this has been the case throughout the last century. But let me talk about factors hindering industrialization. Long ago the international development institutions wrongly prescribed deindustrialization for some countries. An ambassador of an African country actually told me that the very painful process of deindustrialization forced them to stop exporting cheese, cocoa beans and other products. Another reason is that countries change policies too often. Insecurity occasioned by frequent changes of policies scares away investors and disrupts the industrialization process.

Were the structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) of the 1980s a wrong prescription?

I do not want to talk about that because I was involved in the whole process of structural adjustment lending when I was working at the World Bank. I would just say that some of the prescriptions provided to African countries were not very good.

Critics say meetings such as the one you are attending are all talk but no action. What’s your take on this?

I think that sometimes if there’s too much talk, too much debate on the theories, on the reports and studies, action is lost. Just do it! If it’s creating jobs, let’s go for it.

UNIDO’s Programme for Country Partnership (PCP) aims to mobilise private and public sector resources for industrialisation and to provide technical assistance to countries. How is that going?

It’s an innovative way to support a country’s industrial development. We collaborate with governments and development institutions to create industrial development strategies, and we support such strategies. Usually there is a financing issue: the government needs to allocate resources to basic infrastructure. But development institutions also need to provide supplementary financing for infrastructure such as roads, highways, railroads, electricity, water supply, etc. We advise governments to formulate policies that protect investments that will trigger private-sector financing and FDI [foreign direct investment].

You were heavily involved in the development of agricultural and small and medium-size enterprises in China. What lessons can Africa learn from China?

There must be a vision and a strategy. Develop policies that support small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) in the agriculture sector, to begin with. In China, the number one document released at the beginning of the year was a plan to support agriculture development. Second, take concrete measures. We cannot talk about empty themes. Third, support with financial resources, capacity building and training. Fourth, provide an environment for SMEs to thrive. Lastly, link the agricultural sector to agro-industry, agribusiness and manufacturing.

Not long ago, a World Bank report stated that Africa’s agribusiness could be worth $1 trillion by 2030. Could agribusiness be a game changer for the continent?

Yes, although I wouldn’t say that the $1 trillion figure is exactly accurate. But agriculture is a very important sector for Africa. The job creation element in the sector requires innovation. If you try to grow wheat, corn, fruits, etc without connecting to agro-processing food packaging and the global value chain, there is very little opportunity for job creation. Some people argue that if you introduce modern technology, some farmers may lose jobs. I don’t accept this argument because farming services connect to the market. With agro-processing, farmers have more time and capacity to do things beyond planting and growing crops.

The goal of the African Agribusiness and Africa Development Initiative, which UNIDO supports, is to link farmers to big markets. But African farmers cannot compete in the global marketplace because many Western governments subsidize farming. What’s your take?

Africa can be innovative about this. For instance, cocoa-producing African countries that used to export cocoa beans are currently producing some chocolate products locally. In Ghana, a private company is producing cocoa butter, cocoa oil and cocoa cake for domestic consumption. And UNIDO supported them with a laboratory, equipment and technicians to enable them to receive certifications to export to Europe and Asia. Consider Ethiopia, with 95 million people and millions of cattle and sheep and cows. But they only export around 7% of their live cattle to other countries because they don’t have processing capacity. They don’t have the standard certifications for export, although the quality of meat is excellent. Currently we are supporting Ethiopia to set up a project for testing so that they meet the criteria for exporting to other countries. Actually, African agriculture can connect to the global value chain.

Countries may set up agro-industries in areas where they have a competitive advantage, but the lack of technical skills and inadequate infrastructure, particularly roads and electricity, is still an issue.

We have the traditional toolboxes, including vocational training. Capacity training is a very popular UNIDO programme. With donor support, we develop training programmes like we did in Tunisia and Ethiopia, where young engineers received training in how to operate big equipment. The second example is that countries need large-scale agro-processing projects. For instance, Ethiopia developed hundreds of industrial parks that are helping develop the capacity to manufacture many more products. 

Most foreign investors target Africa’s extractive sector, which generates few jobs. How do you encourage investments in the agriculture sector?

The best approach for Africa is not to say, “Don’t export raw materials.” Look at Australia and other countries that still export raw materials. They did their cost-benefits analysis and decided not to set up manufacturing companies. What is needed is market discipline. But this doesn’t mean that all countries must export raw materials. If they have the capacity, if there are foreign investors that come in to build factories and create jobs, why not?

Sustainable industrialization produces long-term results, I believe. Countries grappling with poverty need resources immediately. Such countries cannot slow down their unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.

I believe we should have industrial development in an inclusive, sustainable way. If we manufacture goods with a heavy pollution of water, soil or air, there’s a cost to people’s health. Think about what it will cost to address those pollutions in the future. At UNIDO, we do not approve projects for implementation unless they meet our environmental standards.

Are African leaders receptive to your ideas?

Most leaders I’ve met request UNIDO’s support. Except for countries in difficult situations such as those in conflicts, others need to show a strong commitment to industrialization.

Are you seeing such commitments?

Yes, in Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Kenya, Senegal, Tanzania and Zambia—many leaders are showing a commitment. The new Nigerian president is committed to industrialization. However, countries in conflict, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo [DRC], may have difficulties industrializing. The DRC has many resources, including gold and oil. They have a vast land—you can grow anything there—and a huge population. But internal conflict is slowing industrialization. Yet a peaceful Rwanda is moving very fast with industrialization. So it depends on a country’s situation, the commitments of its leadership and the efficiency of its administrative systems.

How do you see Africa in about 10 years?

Many countries will move up the socioeconomic ladder and become middle-income countries. There will be more industries to manufacture goods and create jobs. I think it’s possible. The global community is ready to support Africa. Most importantly, African countries are committed to industrial progress and economic growth.

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