Δευτέρα 4 Νοεμβρίου 2019

ΑΦΡΟΑΜΕΡΙΚΑΝΟΙ ΟΡΘΟΔΟΞΟΙ ΧΡΙΣΤΙΑΝΟΙ: ΠΙΣΤΗ, ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΣ, ΚΑΙ ΑΝΑΔΥΟΜΕΝΕΣ ΑΞΙΕΣ


Ο π. Nathaniel Johnson, ο Ηγούμενος Τρύφων του Βάσον & ο Αφροαμερικανός ιεραπόστολος π. Μωυσής Μπέρυ. Φωτογραφία από εδώ & εδώ.

 Λυδία Κέμι Ίνγκραμ (Lydia Kemi Ingram)  |  English  (& here)|  ру́сский  |  српски Public Orthodoxy
 
Το 2016 ξεκίνησα μια σειρά συνεντεύξεων με Αφροαμερικανούς Ορθόδοξους Χριστιανούς σε τέσσερις περιοχές των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών. Οι προσωπικές αφηγήσεις είναι ένα αναπόσπαστο κομμάτι ενός οποιουδήποτε ευρύτερου εθνογραφικού ερευνητικού έργου (το δικό μου συνδυάζει τις παρατηρήσεις των συμμετεχόντων με την ψηφιακή έρευνα), και προσφέρουν μια βαθιά και προσωπική αντίληψη σχετικά με ένα μέρος της Ορθόδοξης κοινωνίας το οποίο μέχρι και σήμερα παραμένει, για πολλούς, σχετικά άγνωστο. Ενώ ο αριθμός των Αφροαμερικανών Ορθοδόξων φαίνεται να αυξάνεται, η οποιαδήποτε έρευνα σχετικά με αυτήν την συγκεκριμένη δημογραφική κατηγορία Χριστιανών παραμένει ελάχιστη. 
Η λίγη έρευνα που υπάρχει επικεντρώνεται είτε σε ιστορικά πρόσωπα, όπως τον π. Ραφαήλ Μόργκαν, τον πρώτο Αφρικανό-Αμερικανό Ορθόδοξο ιερέα, ή σε αφηγήσεις που προέρχονται από μια «κοινότητα πρεσβυτέρων», που αποτελείται από τους πιο εξέχοντες και υποδειγματικούς Αφροαμερικανούς Ορθόδοξους Χριστιανούς. Η υπάρχουσα έρευνα μερικές φορές παρουσιάζει μια μονομερή αφήγηση, μια μονοδιάστατη ιστορία, η οποία αν και δεν ψεύδεται, είναι ατελή. Αρά μένουν πολλά προς μάθησίν στην διασταύρωση του Ορθόδοξου Χριστιανισμού και της Αφροαμερικανικής κουλτούρας.
 
Για τα τελευταία 400 χρόνια, οι κοινές εμπειρίες των Αφροαμερικανών έχουν δημιουργήσει μια αποκλειστικά Αμερικανική έννοια του τι σημαίνει να είσαι μαύρος. Η κοινότητα την οποία καλούμε «Αφροαμερικανική» δεν είναι ομοιογενή. Αποτελείται από άτομα με γενετική, εθνική, και φυλετική ποικιλομορφία, και με διάφορους βαθμούς Αφρικανικής καταγωγής. Ιδέες όπως τον «κανόνας μιας σταγόνας» [1] (που εξακολουθεί να επικρατεί στην Αμερική, αν και πολλές φορές υποσυνείδητα) συμβάλλουν στην κατασκευής μιας πλαστής φυλετικής κατηγορίας που  στην πραγματικότητα αποτελείται από μια ανομοιόμορφη και ετερογενή ομάδα ανθρώπων.
Οι εγγενείς πολιτισμικές πολυπλοκότητες περιπλέκονται ακόμη περισσότερο από τις διάφορες νοοτροπίες και τις ασυμφωνίες απόψεων μεταξύ των γενεών. 
Ενώ πολλοί Αφροαμερικανοί μεγαλύτερης ηλικίας θρηνούν την εξαφάνιση της κοινοτικής συνοχής που χαρακτήριζε τις «παλιές καλές μέρες», άλλοι Αφροαμερικανοί ασπάζονται πρόθυμα έναν κόσμο μετά-μαυρότητας, δηλαδή μια εθνική αντίληψη που, ενώ αναγνωρίζει την Αφρικανική καταγωγή, αντιστέκεται σε όλα τα πρώην καθιερωμένα κοινωνικά όρια και πολιτιστικά χαρακτηριστικά. Ποίκιλες και ανόμοιες απόψεις και αντιλήψεις περί μαυρότητας συνυπάρχουν στους ίδιους κύκλους, συχνά σε ένταση μεταξύ τους. Επομένως μπορούμε να πούμε με σιγουριά πως όσον αφορά την Αφροαμερικανική ταυτότητα, δεν υπάρχει μια ενιαία ιστορία. Το 2017, υπάρχουν πολλοί τρόποι να είναι κανείς μαύρος.
 
Η ευρύτερη Αφροαμερικανική κοινότητα, που αποτελείται από ένα μείγμα διαφόρων υποκουλτούρων, έχει επηρεαστεί από διάφορες πτυχές μαύρης διανοητικής και πνευματικής σκέψης. Οι διδασκαλίες του W.E.B. Dubois, του Μπούκερ Τ. Ουάσιγκτον, και του Μάρτιν Λούθερ Κινγκ Τζούνιορ βρίσκουν σύγχρονη έκφραση στα διάφορα υποκουλουριακά πλαίσια. Τα κινήματα της αναγέννησης του Χάρλεμ και της Νεγρικής λογοτεχνίας (Negritude) συγκέντρωσαν μια πολύμορφη ομάδα μαύρων από τις Γαλλόφωνες Αφρικανικές χώρες και την Αμερική. Σήμερα βλέπουμε μια παρόμοια πνευματική και διανοητική διασταύρωση μεταξύ των Αφροαμερικανών Ορθοδόξων Χριστιανών και το Πατριαρχείο Αλεξανδρείας και πάσας Αφρικής.
Από αυτήν την πλούσια, δυναμική και πολύπλευρη κοινότητα έχουν έρθει οι Αφροαμερικανοί Ορθόδοξοι Χριστιανοί του σήμερα. Ο πρώην Βουδιστής που ελκύσθηκε από την Ορθόδοξη μοναστική ζωή, ο πρώην Βαπτιστής πάστορας, ο δευτερογενής Ορθόδοξος βετεράνος, και ο καλλιτέχνης που έγινε ιερέας – όλοι αυτοί και άλλοι βρήκαν εστία στην Ορθόδοξη Εκκλησία. Μερικοί ανακάλυψαν την Ορθοδοξία μετα από μια επίσκεψη στον ιερό ναό, στην οποία είχαν μια μυστηριακή εμπειρία κατά τη διάρκεια της θείας ακολουθίας. Άλλοι συνδέθηκαν ψυχικά και πνευματικά με την ορθόδοξη αισθητική – την υπεροχή εικονογραφία που στολίζει τις εκκλησίες. Για μερικούς, η μελέτη της αγίας γραφής και της εκκλησιαστικής ιστορίας τους οδήγησε στην Αποστολική πίστη. Για άλλους ήταν η αναζήτηση για έναν άλλο, διαφορετικό Χριστιανισμό, έναν που δεν είχε διασυνδέσεις με το διατλαντικό δουλεμπόριο.
 
Οι Αφροαμερικανοί ορθόδοξοι ιερείς Samuel Davis & Turbo Qualls μαζί με τον αγιογράφο π. Jerome Sandersom (& άλλο ένα κληρικό που δεν τον γνωρίζω), με μια εικόνα Αφρικανών ορθοδόξων αγίων. Από εδώ.
 
Ενόψει της διαφοράς και της πολυμορφίας των αφηγήσεων, υπάρχει πάντα ο πειρασμός να βγάλουμε το (λανθασμένο) συμπέρασμα ότι οι Αφροαμερικανοί Ορθόδοξοι Χριστιανοί δεν μοιράζονται κάποιες κοινές αξίες. Σύγχρονες εθνογραφικές έρευνες προτείνουν ότι υπάρχουν κάποιες βασικές αξίες που πράγματι προέρχονται απ’ αυτήν την διαρκώς αυξανομένη κοινότητα. Η αποδοχή αυτών των αξιών φαίνεται είναι καθολική, και ανεξάρτητη από ηλικία, φύλο, κοινωνικοοικονομική κατάσταση, ή γεωγραφική περιοχή.
Κάτι το θεμελιώδες που εξήχθη από τις συλλεγόμενες αφηγήσεις είναι η πεποίθηση ότι κατά τις τελευταίες δύο γενιές, κάτι άλλαξε (προς το χειρότερο) στις Αφροαμερικανικές κοινότητες των αστικών κέντρων. Αυτό το πιστεύουν όχι μόνο τα άτομα που ζουν στις ιδίες τις πόλεις, αλλά ακόμη και αυτοί που ζουν στα προάστια, η ακόμη και σε αγροτικές περιοχές. Επιπλέον, υπάρχει η πεποίθηση ότι οι ιστορικά μαύρες εκκλησίες έχουν αλλάξει προς το χειρότερο. Το χείριστο απ’ όλα αυτά είναι η αυξανόμενη επιρροή της θεολογίας του ευαγγελίου της ευημερίας. Αρά, πολλοί θεωρούν τον Ορθόδοξο Χριστιανισμό ως έκκληση προς έναν ιερό τρόπο ζωής, έναν τρόπο ζωής που στήριξε τις προηγούμενες γενιές. Αυτή η νέα ζωή περιλαμβάνει και την αποκατάσταση μιας ταυτότητας που έχει καταληφθεί από την “κοσμικότητα”.
Βασισμένες στα προαναφερθείσα δεδομένα, οι παρακάτω αξίες και ιδέες απορρέουν από και θεμελιώνουν την Αφροαμερικανική Ορθόδοξη Χριστιανική κοινότητα:
  1. Η πίστη στο Θεόδοτο δικαίωμα να είναι Ορθόδοξοι Χριστιανοί– Ο Ορθόδοξος Χριστιανισμός δεν ανήκει σε έναν συγκεκριμένο πολιτισμό, έθνος, η φυλή. Το να είναι κάποιος Ορθόδοξος δεν σημαίνει ότι θα πρέπει να εγκατάλειψη την εθνική του ταυτότητα. Ένας Αφροαμερικανός μπορεί να είναι όσο Ορθόδοξος όσο κάποιον με ρίζες σε μια παραδοσιακά Ορθόδοξη χώρα. Αυτό το δεδομένο έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία, επειδή οι περισσότεροι Αφροαμερικανοί Ορθόδοξοι Χριστιανοί είναι η μειοψηφία (αν όχι οι μόνοι Αφροαμερικανοί) στην ενορία τους.
  2. Η προσπάθεια προς την απόκτηση αγιότητας είναι ο κυρίαρχος στόχος – Η δέσμευση αυτή εκφράζεται δια την συχνή ανάγνωση της αγίας γραφής, την συμμετοχή στην Θεία Λειτουργία, την καθημερινή προσευχή, και σε έργα ελεημοσύνης. Συνοδεύεται επίσης από την απόλυτη απόρριψη της θεολογίας του «Ευαγγελίου της Ευημερίας» (prosperity gospel) και του “ευαγγέλιο λάιτ” προτεσταντικού Χριστιανισμού. Αντιθέτως, οι πατέρες και μητέρες της Έρημου είναι τα παραδείγματα αληθινού Χριστιανισμού.
  3. Η πατρική συμμετοχή και η διατήρηση της “Παραδοσιακής Οικογένειας” είναι άκρως σημαντική – Χρησιμοποιώντας τα στατιστικά στοιχεία σχετικά με τις μονογονεϊκές οικογένειες, τις άγαμες μητέρες, και τους απόντες πατέρες, οι Αφροαμερικανοί Ορθόδοξοι Χριστιανοί δίνουν μεγάλη αξία στην πατρική συμμετοχή και στην διατήρηση της οικογενείας. Για αυτούς, οι πιστοί γονείς είναι το κλειδί για την ανατροφή μιας πιστής και σταθερής μελλοντικής γενιάς.
  4. Η μαύρη ζωή έχει αξία – Αυτή η ιδέα σχετίζεται, αλλά δεν πρέπει να συγχέεται με το κίνημα «Οι Ζωές των Μαύρων Μετράνε» (Black Lives Matter). Για τους Αφροαμερικανούς Ορθόδοξους Χριστιανούς, η δέσμευση προς την ζωή σημαίνει προστασία του αγέννητου, προστασία από την αστυνομική βία, και προστασία από τους υποστηρικτές της υπεροχής της λευκής φυλής που θέλουν να διεισδύσουν στην Ορθόδοξη Εκκλησία.
  5. Οι Ορθόδοξες Ενορίες θα πρέπει να είναι ιεραποστολικές – Η αληθινή πίστη απαιτεί δέσμευση με την όλη κοινωνία, και κοινοτική προσέγγιση και ευαισθησία, ειδικά όσον αφορά τους φτωχούς, τους περιθωριοποιημένους και τους ευπαθείς. Η ιδέα ότι η προσωπική σωτηρία του ατόμου είναι στενά συνδεδεμένη με την πιστή διάδοση του ευαγγελίου έχει εξέχουσα θέση στις Αφροαμερικανικές Ορθόδοξες αφηγήσεις.
Οι ιστορικές αφηγήσεις, οι πολιτισμικές παραδόσεις, και οι διάφορες πτυχές πνευματικής και διανοητικής σκέψης έχουν διαμορφώσει και συνεχίζουν να διαμορφώνουν την Αφροαμερικανική ταυτότητα. Αν και αποτελείται από διάφορα και ποικιλόμορφα άτομα, η Αφροαμερικανική Ορθόδοξη Χριστιανική Κοινότητα έχει παράγει ένα σετ βασικών ιδανικών και αξιών που αντανακλούν μια μοναδική ιστορία και μια ιδιότυπη και εκπληκτική Αμερικανική εμπειρία.
*Trans.: Katherine Chaffee
[1] Ο «κανόνας μιας σταγόνας» (one-drop rule) ήταν μια μέθοδος φυλετικής ταξινόμησης στις ΗΠΑ από τα χρονιά της σκλαβιάς. Ισχυριζόταν ότι κάθε άτομο που είχε ακόμη και έναν πρόγονο Υποσαχάριας Αφρικανικής καταγωγής (“μία σταγόνα” μαύρου αίματος) θεωρούταν μαύρο.
 
Η Λυδία Κέμι Ίνγκραμ (Lydia Kemi Ingram) είναι η δημιουργός και επιμελητής ψηφιακού περιεχομένου για το «Ορθοδοξία και Πολιτισμός», ένα κανάλι κοινωνικής δικτύωσης που βρίσκεται στη διασταύρωση του Ορθόδοξου Χριστιανισμού και των Αφροαμερικανικών εμπειριών.
 
Δείτε επίσης, παρακαλώ: 
 
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Κυριακή 3 Νοεμβρίου 2019

What should we learn from the story of the rich man and Lazarus in Luke 16?


 

Orthodox Metropolis of Zambia (icons from here)

Luke 16:19-31
The Rich Man and Lazarus
19 “There was a certain rich man who was clothed in purple and fine linen and [a]fared sumptuously every day. 20 But there was a certain beggar named Lazarus, full of sores, who was laid at his gate, 21 desiring to be fed with [b]the crumbs which fell from the rich man’s table. Moreover the dogs came and licked his sores. 22 So it was that the beggar died, and was carried by the angels to Abraham’s bosom. The rich man also died and was buried. 23 And being in torments in Hades, he lifted up his eyes and saw Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom.
24 “Then he cried and said, ‘Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus that he may dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue; for I am tormented in this flame.’ 25 But Abraham said, ‘Son, remember that in your lifetime you received your good things, and likewise Lazarus evil things; but now he is comforted and you are tormented. 26 And besides all this, between us and you there is a great gulf fixed, so that those who want to pass from here to you cannot, nor can those from there pass to us.’
27 “Then he said, ‘I beg you therefore, father, that you would send him to my father’s house, 28 for I have five brothers, that he may testify to them, lest they also come to this place of torment.’ 29 Abraham said to him, ‘They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.’ 30 And he said, ‘No, father Abraham; but if one goes to them from the dead, they will repent.’ 31 But he said to him, ‘If they do not hear Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded though one rise from the dead.’ ”

*****

Orthodox Metropolis of Zambia 
 
Luke 16:19-31 contains the account of a very rich man who lived a life of extreme luxury. Laid outside the gate of this rich man’s house, however, was an extremely poor man named Lazarus who simply hoped “to eat what fell from the rich man’s table” (v. 21). The rich man was completely indifferent to the plight of Lazarus, showing him no love, sympathy, or compassion whatsoever. Eventually, they both died. Lazarus went to heaven, and the rich man went to hell. Appealing to “Father Abraham” in heaven, the rich man requested that Lazarus be sent to cool his tongue with a drop of water to lessen his “agony in this fire.” The rich man also asked Abraham to send Lazarus back to earth to warn his brothers to repent so that they would never join him in hell. Both requests were denied. Abraham told the rich man that if his brothers did not believe in Scripture, neither would they believe a messenger, even if he came straight from heaven.

There is a much we can learn from this passage:
First of all, Jesus teaches here that heaven and hell are both real, literal places. Sadly, many preachers shy away from uncomfortable topics such as hell. Some even teach “universalism” – the belief that everyone goes to heaven. Yet Christ spoke about hell a great deal, as did Paul, Peter, John, Jude, and the writer of Hebrews. The Bible is clear that every person who has ever lived will spend eternity in either heaven or hell. Like the rich man in the story, multitudes today are complacent in their conviction that all is well with their soul, and many will hear our Savior tell them otherwise when they die (Matthew 7:23).
This story also illustrates that once we cross the eternal horizon, that’s it. There are no more chances. The transition to our eternal state takes place the moment we die (2 Corinthians 5:8; Luke 23:43; Philippians 1:23). When believers die, they are immediately in the conscious fellowship and joys of heaven. When unbelievers die, they are just as immediately in the conscious pain, suffering, and torment of hell. Notice the rich man didn’t ask for his brothers to pray for his release from some purgatorial middle ground, thereby expediting his journey to heaven. He knew he was in hell, and he knew why. That’s why his requests were merely to be comforted and to have a warning sent to his brothers. He knew there was no escape. He was eternally separated from God, and Abraham made it clear to him that there was no hope of ever mitigating his pain, suffering, or sorrow. Those in hell will perfectly recollect missed opportunities and their rejection of the gospel.
Like many these days who buy into the “prosperity gospel,” the rich man wrongly saw his material riches as evidence of God’s love and blessing. Likewise, he believed the poor and destitute, like Lazarus, were cursed by God. Yet, as the apostle James exhorted, “You have lived on earth in luxury and self-indulgence. You have fattened yourselves in the day of slaughter” (James 5:5). Not only do riches not get one into heaven, but they have the power to separate a person from God in a way that few other things can. Riches are deceitful (Mark 4:19). It is certainly not impossible for the very rich to enter heaven (many heroes of the Bible were wealthy), but Scripture is clear that it is very hard (Matthew 19:23-24; Mark 10:23-25; Luke 18:24-25).
True followers of Christ will not be indifferent to the plight of the poor like the rich man in this story was. God loves the poor and is offended when His children neglect them (Proverbs 17:5; 22:9, 22-23; 29:7; 31:8-9). In fact, those who show mercy to the poor are in effect ministering to Christ personally (Matthew 25:35-40). Christians are known by the fruit they bear. The Holy Spirit’s residence in our hearts will most certainly impact how we live and what we do.
Abraham’s words in verses 29 and 31 referring to “Moses and the Prophets” (Scripture) confirms that understanding the revealed Word of God has the power to turn unbelief into faith (Hebrew 4:12; James 1:18; 1 Peter 1:23). Furthermore, knowing Scripture helps us to understand that God’s children, like Lazarus, can suffer while on this earth—suffering is one of the many tragic consequences of living in a sinful and fallen world.
The Bible says our earthly lives are a “mist that appears for a little while and then vanishes” (James 4:14). Our earthly sojourn is exceedingly brief. Perhaps the greatest lesson to learn from this story, then, is that when death comes knocking on our door there is only one thing that matters: our relationship with Jesus Christ. “What good will it be for a man if he gains the whole world, yet forfeits his soul?” (Matthew 16:26; Mark 8:36). Eternal life is only found in Christ. “God has given us eternal life, and this life is in His Son. He who has the Son has life; he who does not have the Son of God does not have life” (1 John 5:11-12). The truth is, if we wish to live apart from God during our time on earth, He will grant us our wish for eternity as well. As one pastor aptly said, “If you board the train of unbelief, you will have to take it all the way to its destination.”

Two different scenarios to us. The one is enacted on earth and the other one in heaven...


 Orthodox Archbishopric of Zimbabwe
From today’s Gospel extract we have heard the parable of the rich man and the beggar Lazarus where Christ presents two different scenarios to us. The one is enacted on earth and the other one in heaven. In the scenario, which is enacted on earth, the rich man appears well-nourished, well-clothed, well-housed, healthy. He has a family, five brothers, friends, and servants. In the same scenario on the other hand, there appears the beggar Lazarus-hungry, naked, homeless, sick, without relations and friends alone and deserted, with the dogs as his only companions in his solitude licking his wounds and bringing relief to his pain.

In the second scenario, in the scenario of heaven, the conditions are reversed. The rich man is tormented, he burns, and he thirsts. “I am in agony in this fire, “ he tells us. This painful cry expresses the extent of his despair. Conversely, the beggar Lazarus happily relishes the life of paradise.

It is wrong to say that because the rich man enjoyed all the possessions of earth, he is deprived of them now in heaven and because the poor man was deprived of them on earth, he enjoys them now in eternity. It is wrong my beloved to say that the cause of condemnation of the one is wealth and the justification of the other is poverty. It is neither wealth that leads to hell, nor is poverty an incline which leads to paradise. What is important for anyone to reach paradise or hell is the way in which he lives his wealth or poverty. 

Today, Christ presents to us an ill-natured rich man and a good poor man. Besides, Abraham who is already presented by Christ as being in paradise, according to the witness of the Old Testament, was one of the wealthiest persons. Hence, if wealth were something evil, he would not be in paradise but in hell. What is important is how one uses wealth. If you use wealth to improve life on the planet on which you live, it will lead you to paradise. If however you use it to spread hatred and injustice without constructing works of love, then it leads you to hell. The rich man of today’s parable is condemned because he makes bad use of his wealth. From being an administrator of the material possessions which God entrusted to him, he becomes an embezzler, using them only for himself.

Seeing the poverty stricken Lazarus outside his door hungry and wounded, not only does he not show any interest in helping him but he also causes him irritation. He could have become a contributor of joy, putting his wealth in the service of love. He did not understand that by giving he would further utilize his money. He did not realize the more one gives the more one acquires. Hence, although the wealthy man of the parable is presented to us as being wealthy in material possessions, he proves to be poor in spiritual matters. The lack of love, which he expresses in helping his neighbour, is what led him to condemnation.  Therefore, what condemns the wealthy man is the way in which he manages his wealth. On the other hand, the poverty-stricken Lazarus is presented as being wealthy in virtues. What led him to paradise is not his poverty but his patience and endurance in his tribulation.

The poverty stricken Lazarus does not complain about his situation. He does not hate the rich man who treats him with contempt. He does not become a thief by breaking into someone else’s home in order to satisfy his hunger. He is not carried away by the camouflaged propaganda of the changing social system, which instead of leading to justice as it promises to do, leads man far away from God.

Conversely, Lazarus endures. He is content with the crumbs and company of dogs. He is satisfied with little and does not live with the longing to become wealthy by treading on the souls of others if the opportunity is given to him. And it is perhaps in his state of being satisfied with little that he is richer than the wealthier man because poverty is not measured by what one has but by what one desires, because the more you desire, the poorer you are even if you have a lot.

Finally, however, wealth as much as poverty depending on the way in which we use them will lead us to the appropriate place accordingly: to hell or to paradise. We would be able to say by means of a parable, that poverty and wealth are two keys. Everyone holds the one and the other. You can open the door with the key as well as lock it. It depends on the way in which you use it. In today’ gospel extract, the wealthy man used his key to close the door of paradise, whereas the poor man used it to open the door.

Similarly my beloved, we have the opportunity to freely decide how we are going to use our key of wealth or poverty, opening or closing the door, which leads to the life of paradise. The ecological crisis is a result of our sinful way of our lives. So we need ecological repentance in order to bring ecological and economic justice in order to protect our common Oikos, the whole Oikoumene, our common House, our Planet. We should behave like Zanheos of the Gospel sharing our wealth with the poor and the suffering. Our care to stop any activity of pollution of our Planet is the only way to give hope for life to the future generations.

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Σάββατο 2 Νοεμβρίου 2019

Saint David of Euboea Island, Greece (November 1st)


Our Venerable and God-bearing Father David of Euboea, also David the Elder ((Greek): Ὁ Ὅσιος Δαβὶδ ὁ ἐν Εὐβοίᾳ), ca.1480 - ca.1589, is a Saint and Wonderworker of Ottoman Greece. His feast day is celebrated by the Orthodox Church on November 1. The Monastery of Saint David in Euboea, which is dedicated to the Transfiguration of the Savior, and yet is associated with Saint David who founded it about 1535-1540 AD and lived his monastic life there in the 16th century, celebrates on August 6th as well as on November 1st. Within the church are the relics of Saint David, his censer, his priestly stole, and other treasures. (...)
 
Click here please...
 
See also
 
During the time that Luther and Calvin were formulating the Reformation...
Three contemporary Orthodox Saints & the African peoples

Holy icon of sts David & Jacob of Euboea, from the Orthodox Church of Theotokos Life-Giving Spring, st David of Euboea & st Jacob (Iakobos) of Euboea, in Nyamahana, Tanzania (more here). Icon from here.
 
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Παρασκευή 1 Νοεμβρίου 2019

Extreme poverty



En.wikipedia.org

Extreme poverty, abject poverty, absolute poverty, destitution, or penury, was defined by the United Nations (UN) in its 1995 report of the World Summit for Social Development as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."[2] Historically, other definitions have been proposed within the United Nations.
In 2018, extreme poverty widely refers to an income below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (in 2011 prices, equivalent to $2.12 in 2018), set by the World Bank. In October 2015, the World Bank updated the international poverty line, a global absolute minimum, to $1.90 a day.[3] This is the equivalent of $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression "living on less than a dollar a day".[4] The vast majority of those in extreme poverty reside in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, the West Indies, East Asia, and the Pacific. As of 2018, it is estimated that the country with the most people living in extreme poverty is Nigeria, at 86 million.[1][5][6]
In the past, the vast majority of the world population lived in conditions of extreme poverty.[7][8] The percentage of the global population living in absolute poverty fell from over 80% in 1800 to 20% by 2015.[9] According to United Nations estimates, in 2015 roughly 734 million people or 10% remained under those conditions.[10] The number had previously been measured as 1.9 billion in 1990, and 1.2 billion in 2008. Despite the significant number of individuals still below the international poverty line, these figures represent significant progress for the international community, as they reflect a decrease of more than one billion people over 15 years.[10]
In public opinion surveys around the world, people surveyed tend to incorrectly think that extreme poverty has not decreased.[11][12]
The reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG1), as set by the United Nations in 2000. Specifically, the target was to reduce the extreme poverty rate by half by 2015, a goal that was met five years ahead of schedule. In the Sustainable Development Goals, which succeeded the MDGs, the goal is to end extreme poverty in all its forms everywhere. With this declaration the international community, including the UN and the World Bank have adopted the target of ending extreme poverty by 2030.
 
See also  
 
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The poverty threshold, poverty limit or poverty line


En.wikipedia.org
 
The poverty threshold, poverty limit or poverty line is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country.[1] Poverty line is usually calculated by finding the total cost of all the essential resources that an average human adult consumes in one year.[2] The largest of these expenses is typically the rent required to live in an apartment, so historically, economists have paid particular attention to the real estate market and housing prices as a strong poverty line affector. Individual factors are often used to account for various circumstances, such as whether one is a parent, elderly, a child, married, etc. The poverty threshold may be adjusted annually.
In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries.[3][4]
In October 2015, the World Bank updated the international poverty line, a global absolute minimum, to16|publisher=The World Bank|accessdate=17 June 2019}}</ref>
By this measure, the percentage of the global population living in absolute poverty fell from over 80% in 1800 to 10% by 2015, according to United Nations estimates, which found roughly 734 million people remained in absolute poverty.[5][6]
 

History

Charles Booth, a pioneering investigator of poverty in London at the turn of the 20th century, popularised the idea of a poverty line, a concept originally conceived by the London School Board.[7] Booth set the line at 10 (50p) to 20 shillings (£1) per week, which he considered to be the minimum amount necessary for a family of four or five people to subsist on.[8] Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree (1871–1954), a British sociological researcher, social reformer and industrialist, surveyed rich families in York, and drew a poverty line in terms of a minimum weekly sum of money "necessary to enable families … to secure the necessaries of a healthy life", which included fuel and light, rent, food, clothing, and household and personal items. Based on data from leading nutritionists of the period, he calculated the cheapest price for the minimum calorific intake and nutritional balance necessary, before people get ill or lose weight. He considered this amount to set his poverty line and concluded that 27.84% of the total population of York lived below this poverty line.[9] This result corresponded with that from Charles Booth's study of poverty in London and so challenged the view, commonly held at the time, that abject poverty was a problem particular to London and was not widespread in the rest of Britain. Rowntree distinguished between primary poverty, those lacking in income and secondary poverty, those who had enough income, but spent it elsewhere (1901:295–96).[9]

Absolute poverty and the International Poverty Line

See also: Extreme poverty

The term "absolute poverty" is also sometimes used as a synonym for extreme poverty. Absolute poverty is the absence of enough resources to secure basic life necessities.
To assist in measuring this, the World Bank has a daily per capita international poverty line (IPL), a global absolute minimum, of $1.90 a day as of October 2015. [10]
The new IPL replaces the $1.25 per day figure, which used 2005 data.[11] In 2008, the World Bank came out with a figure (revised largely due to inflation) of $1.25 a day at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP).[12] The new figure of $1.90 is based on ICP purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations and represents the international equivalent of what $1.90 could buy in the US in 2011. Most scholars agree that it better reflects today's reality, particularly new price levels in developing countries.[13] The common IPL has in the past been roughly $1 a day.[14]
These figures are artificially low according to Peter Edward of Newcastle University. He believes the real number as of 2015 was $7.40 per day. [15]
Using a single monetary poverty threshold is problematic when applied worldwide, due to the difficulty of comparing prices between countries. Prices of the same goods vary dramatically from country to country; while this is typically corrected for by using purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates, the basket of goods used to determine such rates is usually unrepresentative of the poor, most of whose expenditure is on basic foodstuffs rather than the relatively luxurious items (washing machines, air travel, healthcare) often included in PPP baskets. The economist Robert C. Allen has attempted to solve this by using standardized baskets of goods typical of those bought by the poor across countries and historical time, for example including a fixed calorific quantity of the cheapest local grain (such as corn, rice, or oats).[16]

 

Basic needs

See also: Basic needs

The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy those needs. The 'basic needs' approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization's World Employment Conference in 1976.[17][18] "Perhaps the high point of the WEP was the World Employment Conference of 1976, which proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overriding objective of national and international development policy. The basic needs approach to development was endorsed by governments and workers' and employers' organizations from all over the world. It influenced the programmes and policies of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, and was the precursor to the human development approach."[17][18]
A traditional list of immediate "basic needs" is food (including water), shelter, and clothing.[19] Many modern lists emphasize the minimum level of consumption of 'basic needs' of not just food, water, and shelter, but also sanitation, education, and health care. Different agencies use different lists. According to a UN declaration that resulted from the World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995, absolute poverty is "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education, and information. It depends not only on income, but also on access to services."[20]
David Gordon's paper, "Indicators of Poverty and Hunger", for the United Nations, further defines absolute poverty as the absence of any two of the following eight basic needs:[20]
  • Food: Body mass index must be above 16.
  • Safe drinking water: Water must not come solely from rivers and ponds, and must be available nearby (fewer than 15 minutes' walk each way).
  • Sanitation facilities: Toilets or latrines must be accessible in or near the home.
  • Health: Treatment must be received for serious illnesses and pregnancy.
  • Shelter: Homes must have fewer than four people living in each room. Floors must not be made of soil, mud, or clay.
  • Education: Everyone must attend school or otherwise learn to read.
  • Information: Everyone must have access to newspapers, radios, televisions, computers, or telephones at home.
  • Access to services: This item is undefined by Gordon, but normally is used to indicate the complete panoply of education, health, legal, social, and financial (credit) services.
In 1978, Ghai investigated the literature that criticized the basic needs approach. Critics argued that the basic needs approach lacked scientific rigour; it was consumption-oriented and antigrowth. Some considered it to be "a recipe for perpetuating economic backwardness" and for giving the impression "that poverty elimination is all too easy".[21] Amartya Sen focused on 'capabilities' rather than consumption.
In the development discourse, the basic needs model focuses on the measurement of what is believed to be an eradicable level of poverty.

Relative poverty
See also: Economic inequality and Relative deprivation

Relative poverty means low income relative to others in a country; for example, below 60% of the median income of people in that country.
The relative poverty measure is used by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Canadian poverty researchers.[22][23][24][25][26] In the European Union, the "relative poverty measure is the most prominent and most–quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators."[27]
"Relative poverty reflects better the cost of social inclusion and equality of opportunity in a specific time and space."[28]
"Once economic development has progressed beyond a certain minimum level, the rub of the poverty problem – from the point of view of both the poor individual and of the societies in which they live – is not so much the effects of poverty in any absolute form but the effects of the contrast, daily perceived, between the lives of the poor and the lives of those around them. For practical purposes, the problem of poverty in the industrialized nations today is a problem of relative poverty (page 9)."[28][29]
However, some have argued that as relative poverty is merely a measure of inequality, using the term 'poverty' for it is misleading. For example, if everyone in a country's income doubled, it would not reduce the amount of 'relative poverty' at all.

 

History of the concept of relative poverty

In 1776, Adam Smith argued that poverty is the inability to afford "not only the commodities which are indispensably necessary for the support of life, but whatever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the lowest order, to be without."[30][31]
In 1958, John Kenneth Galbraith argued, "People are poverty stricken when their income, even if adequate for survival, falls markedly behind that of their community."[31][32]
In 1964, in a joint committee economic President's report in the United States, Republicans endorsed the concept of relative poverty: "No objective definition of poverty exists. ... The definition varies from place to place and time to time. In America as our standard of living rises, so does our idea of what is substandard."[31][33]
In 1965, Rose Friedman argued for the use of relative poverty claiming that the definition of poverty changes with general living standards. Those labelled as poor in 1995, would have had "a higher standard of living than many labelled not poor" in 1965.[31][34]
In 1979, British sociologist, Peter Townsend published his famous definition: "individuals... can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or are at least widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong (page 31)."[35]
Brian Nolan and Christopher T. Whelan of the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) in Ireland explained that "poverty has to be seen in terms of the standard of living of the society in question."[36]
Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates by the European Union, UNICEF and the OEDC. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.[37]

 

Relative poverty compared with other standards

A measure of relative poverty defines "poverty" as being below some relative poverty threshold. For example, the statement that "those individuals who are employed and whose household equivalised disposable income is below 60% of national median equivalised income are poor" uses a relative measure to define poverty.[38]
The term relative poverty can also be used in a different sense to mean "moderate poverty" – for example, a standard of living or level of income that is high enough to satisfy basic needs (like water, food, clothing, housing, and basic health care), but still significantly lower than that of the majority of the population under consideration.[39]

 

National poverty lines

2008 CIA World Factbook-based map showing the percentage of population by country living below that country's official poverty line
 
National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys. Definitions of the poverty line do vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Even among rich nations, the standards differ greatly. Thus, the numbers are not comparable among countries. Even when nations do use the same method, some issues may remain.[40]

 

United Kingdom

In the UK, "more than five million people – over a fifth (23 percent) of all employees – were paid less than £6.67 an hour in April 2006. This value is based on a low pay rate of 60 percent of full-time median earnings, equivalent to a little over £12,000 a year for a 35-hour working week. In April 2006, a 35-hour week would have earned someone £9,191 a year – before tax or National Insurance".[41][42]

 

India

India's official poverty level as of 2005, on the other hand, is split according to rural versus urban thresholds. For urban dwellers, the poverty line is defined as living on less than 538.60 rupees (approximately US$12) per month, whereas for rural dwellers, it is defined as living on less than 356.35 rupees per month (approximately US$7.50).[43]

 

United States

In United States, the poverty thresholds are updated every year by Census Bureau. The threshold in United States are updated and used for statistical purposes. In 2015, in the United States, the poverty threshold for a single person under 65 was an annual income of US$11,770; the threshold for a family group of four, including two children, was US$24,250.[44][45] According to the U.S. Census Bureau data released on 13 September 2011, the nation's poverty rate rose to 15.1 percent in 2010.

 

Women and children

Women and children find themselves impacted by poverty more often than men, most specifically when a part of single mother families.[46] This is due to the feminization of poverty, how the poverty rate of women has increasingly exceeded that of men’s.[47] While the overall poverty rate is 12.3%, women are 13.8% likely to fall into poverty and men are below the overall rate at 11.1%.[48][46] Women and children (as single mother families) find themselves as a part of low class communities because they are 21.6% more likely to fall into poverty.[49]

 

Racial minorities

Racial minorities have been a large part of American history. A minority group is defined as “a category of people who experience relative disadvantage as compared to members of a dominant social group.”[50] Minorities are traditionally separated into the following groups: African Americans, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics.[51] According to the current U.S. Poverty statistics, Black Americans - 21%, Foreign born non-citizens - 19%, Hispanic Americans - 18%, and  Adults with a disability - 25%.[52] This does not include all minority groups, but these groups alone account for 85% of people under the poverty line in the United States.[53] Whites have a poverty rate of 8.7%; the poverty rate is more than double for Black and Hispanic Americans.[54]

 

Impacts on education

Living below the poverty threshold can have a major impact on a child’s education.[55] The psychological stresses induced by poverty may affect a student’s ability to perform well academically.[55] In addition, the risk of poor health is more prevalent for those living in poverty.[55] Health issues commonly affect the extent to which one can continue and fully take advantage of his or her education.[55] Poor students in the United States are more likely to dropout of school at some point in their education.[55] Research has also found that children living in poverty perform poorly academically and have lower graduation rates.[55] Impoverished children also experience more disciplinary issues in school than others.[55] Schools in impoverished communities usually do not receive much funding, which can also set their students apart from those living in more affluent neighborhoods.[55] There is much dispute over whether upward mobility that brings a child out of poverty may or may not have a significant positive impact on his or her education; inadequate academic habits that form as early as preschool typically are unknown to improve despite changes in socioeconomic status.[55]

 

Impacts on healthcare

The nation’s poverty threshold is issued by the Census Bureau.[56] According to the Office of Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation the threshold is statistically relevant and can be a solid predictor of people in poverty.[56] The reasoning for using Federal Poverty Level, FPL, is due to its action for distributive purposes under the direction of Health and Human Services. So FPL is a tool derived from the threshold but can be used to show eligibility for certain federal programs.[56] Federal poverty levels have direct effects on individual’s healthcare. In the past years and into the present government, the use of the poverty threshold has consequences for such programs like Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program.[57]  The benefits which different families are eligible for are contingent on FPL. The FPL, in turn is calculated based on federal numbers from the previous year.[57] The benefits and qualifications for federal programs are dependent on number of people on a plan and the income of the total group.[57] For 2019, the U.S Department of health & Human Services enumerate what the line is for different families. For a single person, the line is $12,490 and up to $43,430 for a family of 8, in the lower 48 states.[56] Another issue is reduced-cost coverage. These reductions are based on income relative to FPL, and work in connection with public health services such as Medicaid.[58] The divisions of FPL percentages are nominally, above 400%, below 138% and below 100% of the FPL.[58] After the advent of the American Care Act, Medicaid was expanded on states bases.[58] For example, enrolling in the ACA kept the benefits of Medicaid when the  income was up to 138% of the FPL.[58]

 

Poverty mobility and healthcare

Health Affairs along with analysis by Georgetown found that public assistance does counteract poverty threats between 2010 and 2015.[59] In regards to Medicaid, child poverty is decreased by 5.3%, and Hispanic and Black poverty by 6.1% and 4.9% respectively.[59] The reduction of family poverty also has the highest decrease with Medicaid over other public assistance programs.[59] Expanding state Medicaid decreased the amount individuals paid by an average of $42, while it increased the costs to $326 for people not in expanded states. The same study analyzed showed 2.6 million people were kept out of poverty by the effects of Medicaid.[59] From a 2013-2015 study, expansion states showed a smaller gap in health insurance between households making below $25,000 and above $75,000.[60] Expansion also significantly reduced the gap of having a primary care physician between impoverished and higher income individuals.[60] In terms of education level and employment, health insurance differences were also reduced.[60] Non-expansion also showed poor residents went from a 22% chance of being uninsured to 66% from 2013 to 2015.[60]

 

Poverty dynamics

Living above or below the poverty threshold is not necessarily a position in which an individual remains static.[61] As many as one in three impoverished people were not poor at birth; rather, they descended into poverty over the course of their life.[55] Additionally, a study which analyzed data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) found that nearly 40% of 20-year-olds received food stamps at some point before they turned 65.[62] This indicates that many Americans will dip below the poverty line sometime during adulthood, but will not necessarily remain there for the rest of their life.[62] Furthermore, 44% of individuals who are given transfer benefits (other than Social Security) in one year do not receive them the next.[61] Over 90% of Americans who receive transfers from the government stop receiving them within 10 years, indicating that the population living below the poverty threshold is in flux and does not remain constant.[61]

 

Cutoff issues

Most experts and the public agree that the official poverty line in the United States is substantially lower than the actual cost of basic needs. In particular, a 2017 Urban Institute study found that 61% of non-elderly adults earning between 100-200% of the poverty line reported at least one material hardship, not significantly different from those below the poverty line. The cause of the discrepancy is believed to be an outdated model of spending patterns based on actual spending in the year 1955; the number and proportion of material needs has risen substantially since then. However, the Donald Trump administration is publicly floating a policy that would lower the line even further (in some areas) by switching to the United States Chained Consumer Price Index that is less accurate for low incomes over time, which would weaken assistance programs by reducing the number of eligible individuals and make the poverty line itself an even less accurate indicator of poverty.[63]
 
Variability
The U.S. Census Bureau calculates the poverty line the same throughout the U.S. regardless of the cost-of-living in a state or urban area. For instance, the cost-of-living in California, the most populous state, was 42% greater than the U.S. average in 2010, while the cost-of-living in Texas, the second-most populous state, was 10% less than the U.S. average. In 2017, California had the highest poverty rate in the country when housing costs are factored in, a measure calculated by the Census Bureau known as "the supplemental poverty measure".[64]

 

Government transfers to alleviate poverty

In addition to wage and salary income, investment income and government transfers such as SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, also known as food stamps) and housing subsidies are included in a household's income. Studies measuring the differences between income before and after taxes and government transfers, have found that without social support programs, poverty would be roughly 30% to 40% higher than the official poverty line indicates.[65][66]

See also

References

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  • Jonathan Bradshaw; Yekaterina Chzhen; Gill Main; Bruno Martorano; Leonardo Menchini; Chris de Neubourg (January 2012). Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries (PDF) (Report). Innocenti Working Paper. Florence, Italy: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. ISSN 1014-7837.

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  • Peter Adamson; UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre (2012). Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world's rich countries (PDF) (Report). UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card. Florence, Italy.

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