We are Orthodox Christian Greeks.
Because we are Orthodox Christians, we love our country, our people and all the peoples of the earth; this of course includes our African brothers and sisters.
Growing up in a European capital where rubbish is put in the dustbin and
from there the rubbish dumps, which I do not know and in a way I don't
want to know where they are. People in the cities choose to distance
themselves from these facts and get quite annoyed when the trash is not
collected on time.
However we forget various other places around the world which receive
our rubbish. It is a fact that trash is moved around, massive quantities
are thrown in the oceans and the third world. These of course produce
many illnesses and infections to the people close to this 'mountains of
rubbish'.
Are the pictures here the answer to the problem in the 21st century? We
have been hearing that a futuristic solution would be to send our
rubbish into space. Maybe recycling should be taken more seriously.
These images are appalling, showing how colonial attitudes from the
Western powers towards the South, mainly Africa, continue even in the
post-colonial era.
«Ο λαός σου δεν μπορεί άλλο, Κύριε, Αντί πετρελαίου και αερίου Πουλάνε τη χώρα μας» Azagaia, “Vendem o Pais,” («Πουλάνε τη χώρα μας»)
Σε προηγούμενο άρθρο αναφερθήκαμε
στην περίπτωση της Μαδαγασκάρης, μιας πάμφτωχης πρώην αποικίας της
Γαλλίας, που τώρα, δίπλα στα άλλα τεράστια προβλήματά της έχει να
αντιμετωπίσει και την κλιματική αλλαγή – και στην οποία η ελληνική
κυβέρνηση εξήγαγε, για λογαριασμό του Ισραήλ, το κακόβουλο
λογισμικό Predator.
Η Μαδαγασκάρη νίκησε τους Γάλλους στρατιωτικά τον 19ο αιώνα,
όταν πρωτοπήγαν να την κατακτήσουν, αλλά το Παρίσι τους πήρε πίσω την
ανεξαρτησία τους με οικονομικά μέσα, υποχρεώνοντάς τους μάλιστα να
καταβάλλουν πολεμικές αποζημιώσεις. Μια ιστορία κάπως παρόμοια,
τηρουμένων των αναλογιών, με την ημι-ακύρωση της Ελληνικής Επανάστασης,
μέσω των «δανείων της Ανεξαρτησίας» (που μάλλον της εξάρτησης θά ’πρεπε
να ονομάζονται) και που η οργάνωσή τους έχει κατά καιρούς αποδοθεί στους
Ρότσιλντ, χωρίς όμως να αποδειχθεί αυτό.
Κάποια στιγμή οι Γάλλοι έκαναν τη Μαδαγασκάρη και επίσημα αποικία
τους, οι ντόπιοι όμως μάλλον δεν το βρήκαν αυτό πολύ του γούστου τους
και όλο και ξεσηκώνονταν. Η καταστολή των εξεγέρσεων αυτών προκάλεσε,
ανάλογα με τις πηγές, από εκατό έως επτακόσιες χιλιάδες νεκρούς. Η
τελευταία μεγάλη σφαγή που έκαναν οι Γάλλοι στο νησί ήταν το 1947, με
40.000 νεκρούς.
Νεοαποικιοκρατία
Το νησί κέρδισε τελικά την ανεξαρτησία του, αλλά, όπως και σε πολλές
άλλες αφρικανικές και ασιατικές χώρες, η αποικιοκρατία αντικαταστάθηκε
απλώς από τη νεοαποικιοκρατία, με τους δυτικούς και ιδίως τους Γάλλους
να εκμεταλλεύονται ανελέητα μέχρι και σήμερα τον πλούτο της χώρας και τη
δουλειά των ανθρώπων της, όπως συμβαίνει σχεδόν σε όλη την Αφρική.
Σε πολλές μάλιστα χώρες, τα εθνικοαπελευθερωτικά κινήματα που έδωσαν
πολύχρονες, άφθαστου ηρωισμού μάχες κατά των ξένων, εκφυλίστηκαν, ενίοτε
φτάνοντας μέχρι του σημείου να γίνουν τα ίδια φορείς της
νέο-αποικιοκρατίας.
Θυμάμαι τον Μιχάλη Ράπτη-Pablo, κύριο, και για μια ολόκληρη περίοδο μοναδικό διεθνώς, υποστηρικτή, ως ηγέτη τότε της 4ης Διεθνούς, με κάθε δυνατό μέσο, περιλαμβανομένου του εφοδιασμού και της κατασκευής ακόμα όπλων, της Αλγερινής Επανάστασης,
να μου λέει πόση έκπληξη ένοιωσε όταν είδε μπαρουτοκαπνισμένους
καπετάνιους του αλγερινού FLN (ΕΑΜ) να κυκλοφορούν επιδεικτικά
μεταμορφωμένοι έξι μήνες αργότερα με τις πολυτελείς κούρσες τους και να
διάγουν βίο προυχόντων. Την ίδια έκπληξη που ένοιωσα και εγώ όταν ο
θυρωρός του κρατικού θεάτρου του Ζάγκρεμπ, περήφανος αυτός, με οδήγησε
στο ειδικό θεωρείο που κρατούσε, όπως οι βασιλιάδες του παλιού καιρού, ο
Τίτο, αρχηγός ενός από τα μεγαλύτερα επαναστατικά κινήματα της Ευρώπης,
των παρτιζάνων της Γιουγκοσλαβίας.
Μερικές φορές οι ξένες υπηρεσίες έβαλαν και το χεράκι τους βέβαια να
ευνοήσουν αυτή τη μετάλλαξη των ηγεσιών των εθνικοαπελευθερωτικών
κινημάτων. Ενδεχομένως τον ρόλο αυτό έπαιξαν στην Αλγερία, σύμφωνα με
ορισμένες φήμες, που δεν γνωρίζω όμως αν ευσταθούν, οι υπηρεσίες της
Δυτικής Γερμανίας στο πραξικόπημα με το οποίο αντικαταστάθηκε ο πρώτος
πρόεδρος Μπεν Μπέλα από τον αρχηγό του στρατού Μπουμεντιέν.
Μοζαμβίκη
Ο τυφώνας Freddy έπληξε άγρια και τη Μοζαμβίκη, όπου μάλιστα, κατά
μία σατανική σύμπτωση, όλα αυτά συνέπεσαν με τον θάνατο του μεγάλου hip
hop καλλιτέχνη Azagaia, ειδώλου στη χώρα του, αλλά και σε όλες τις χώρες
που μιλούν τα πορτογαλικά. Αυτός ήταν που τραγουδούσε
Ο λαός σου δεν μπορεί άλλο, Κύριε Αντί πετρελαίου και αερίου πουλάνε τη χώρα μας
στίχους στο εμβληματικό τραγούδι του «Vendem o Pais», («Πουλάνε τη
χώρα»). Πολύ δημοφιλής στη χώρα του, τόσο στη νεολαία όσο και στους πιο
ηλικιωμένους, ο Azagaia έμπηγε το μαχαίρι στις μεγάλες πληγές των
αποτελεσμάτων της κλιματικής αλλαγής, αλλά και της κοινωνικής και
πολιτικής πραγματικότητας της χώρας του και της Αφρικής. Ο θάνατός του
έβγαλε εκατομμύρια στους δρόμους και η κυβέρνηση της Μοζαμβίκης απάντησε
με σκληρή καταστολή.
Αμερική, Ρωσία, Κίνα και παναφρικανισμός
Δώσαμε παραπάνω μια εκλεκτική και πολύ περιορισμένη ασφαλώς, αλλά
χαρακτηριστική εικόνα μερικών από τα πολλά και τεράστια προβλήματα που
ταλανίζουν τη Μαύρη Ήπειρο, που τόσο συχνά το άφθονο αίμα των λαών της
από Μαύρη την έβαψε Κόκκινη. Ο τεράστιος πλούτος της έγινε πλούτος της
Δύσης και δική της τραγωδία.
Φυσικό είναι, σε αυτές τις συνθήκες, και τα λαϊκά κινήματα της
ηπείρου, αλλά και πολλές κυβερνήσεις να βλέπουν με ευνοϊκό μάτι την
είσοδο της Κίνας στην περιοχή και την επάνοδο της Ρωσίας, ενώ κερδίζει
όλο και περισσότερο έδαφος η ιδέα περιφερειακών συσπειρώσεων και το
ευρύτερο όραμα του παναφρικανισμού.
Η απάντηση των Αμερικανών στην πρόκληση αυτή είναι κυρίως η γενίκευση
των επεμβάσεων της CIA και της ιδιαίτερα δραστήριας και επιθετικής, σε
όλη την ήπειρο, AFRICOM, της διοίκησης των αμερικανικών ενόπλων δυνάμεων
για την Αφρική, επεμβάσεις στις οποίες σπανιότατα αναφέρεται ο δυτικός
τύπος. Και το να δίνουν μαθήματα στους Αφρικάνους πώς να αποφεύγουν τις
συνεργασίες με τους Κινέζους και τους Ρώσους.
Μόνο που οι καιροί έχουν αλλάξει. Της τά ’παν έξω από τα δόντια της
Αμερικανίδας αντιπροέδρου Κάμαλα Χάρις οι ηγέτες των χωρών που
επισκέφθηκε πρόσφατα. Όσο για τον πρόεδρο της Αφρικανικής Ένωσης,
εξήγησε με τα ακόλουθα λόγια τη θέση των Αφρικανών: «Όταν μιλάμε, συχνά
δε μας ακούνε ή πάντως δεν ενδιαφέρονται για το τι λέμε. Αυτό είναι που
θέλουμε να αλλάξουμε. Και να μη μας λέει κανένας: μη δουλεύετε με τον
ένα ή με τον άλλο. Θέλουμε να δουλεύουμε και να εμπορευόμαστε με όλους» (Why Africa Chose China | Defend Democracy Press).
Αν η ανάκτηση ή η απώλεια της αξιοπρέπειας είναι επίσης και ένας
δείκτης για το ποιος έχει ή δεν έχει μέλλον, η Αφρική και ο μη δυτικός
κόσμος ανεβαίνουν, η Ευρώπη (και η Ελλάδα μαζί της) πέφτει. Έστω και αν
ξεκινάνε από πολύ διαφορετικά, προς το παρόν, επίπεδα.
Μακάρι να είχαμε και εμείς καναν πολιτικό σαν αυτούς που εμφανίζονται τώρα στη Μαύρη Ήπειρο. Πού τέτοια τύχη όμως;
Υ.Γ.: Στο άρθρο μας
για τις κυρώσεις στη Ρωσία και στη Λευκορωσία, παραλείψαμε κάτι
ουσιώδες. Τα ευρωπαϊκά κράτη έχουν μπλοκάρει 350.000 τόνους λιπάσματα
που προορίζονται για φτωχές αφρικανικές χώρες, παρά το γεγονός ότι η
Ρωσία έχει δηλώσει ότι τα χαρίζει και, επομένως δεν θα έχει εισοδήματα
από αυτά. Ταυτόχρονα όμως οι Ευρωπαίοι έχουν άρει τις κυρώσεις για
εισαγωγές ρωσικών λιπασμάτων προς τις ίδιες, παρά το ότι από αυτές
κερδίζει η Ρωσία, γιατί χρειάζονται τα λιπάσματα. Τι κι αν πεθάνουν
μερικοί ακόμα Αφρικάνοι; Μαύροι είναι άλλωστε, όχι άνθρωποι.
With the blessings of Archbishop Ioannis of Zambia and with the profound help of Greek community of Copper belt Community the parish of St Nicholas in Kapiri Mposhi experienced and cerebrated the Great Feast of Pascha with joy and brightness.
Χριστός Ανέστη
Christ is risen
Khristu Washukuka
Khristu Wauka
Christ est Ressuscite
Khristu Wabuka
Khristu Wovenya
Khristu Asukile
Χριστός Ανέστη from St Nicholas in Kapiri.
Με τις ευλογίες του Αρχιεπισκόπου Ιωάννη Ζάμπιας και με την βαθιά βοήθεια της Ελληνικής κοινότητας Copper belt Community η ενορία του Αγίου Νικολάου στο Καπίρι Μόσχης βίωσε και εορτάσε με χαρά και φωτεινότητα τη Μεγάλη Γιορτή του Πασχά.
C'est dans une climat de solennité et de joie que la Résurrection de notre Seigneur Jésus Christ a été fêtée dans notre Archevêché. Sous une pluie douce des bénédictions, son Éminence Mgr CHARITON notre Archevêque entouré de son clergé et d'une foule des fidèles a rehaussé de sa présence en la grande cathédrale de Saint André le Premier appelé pour fêter cet événement. Jour de la Résurrection, peuples rayonnons de joie, entonne le choeur sous un ton angélique, exultons d'allégresse et de joie.
LE CHRIST EST RESSUSCITÉ crie d'une voix forte notre Père spirituel, VRAIMENT IL EST RESSUSCITÉ répond en une voix tout le peuple réuni. Que le Christ notre Dieu ressuscité bénisse chacun de vous et vous comble de ses grâces. Le CHRIST EST RESSUSCITÉ.
Σαράντα σεντ. Όσο ένα καρβέλι ψωμί, που συχνά είναι και το μόνο
φαγητό της οικογένειας. Τόσα παίρνουν για να κάνουν σεξ κορίτσια -ακόμη
και 12 ετών- στη νότια Αγκόλα, μία από τις χώρες του νοτίου κέρατος της Αφρικής, που αντιμετωπίζει από τις μεγαλύτερης ξηρασίες των τελευταίων
δεκαετιών, με τη συνακόλουθη αύξηση της πείνας.
«Ξέρουμε
ότι λόγω των συνθηκών το φαινόμενο έχει αυξηθεί πολύ, αλλά δεν υπάρχουν
ακριβείς αριθμοί ή στατιστικές, άλλωστε είναι θέμα ταμπού», λέει ο
Ρόμπερτ Μπούλτεν, επικεφαλής καταστάσεων έκτακτης ανάγκης της
ανθρωπιστικής οργάνωσης World Vision στην Αγκόλα. «Μιλάμε για κορίτσια
12 με 17 ετών. Πολλά από αυτά μπορεί να κάνουν σεξ για ένα δολάριο, το
οποίο αρκεί για να αγοράσουν ένα κιλό φασόλια ή δύο κιλά καλαμπόκι. Κι
άλλα θα το κάνουν ακόμη και για 40 σεντ προκειμένου να αγοράσουν κάτι
φαγώσιμο, έστω και λίγο ψωμί».
Ανάλογη
είναι η κατάσταση στη Ζιμπάμπουε όπου ανήλικα κορίτσια κάνουν σεξ ακόμη
και για 30 σεντ του δολαρίου, «τραγικό από κάθε άποψη, αφού ούτε ένα
καρβέλι ψωμί δεν αγοράζουν μ’ αυτά», καταγγέλλει στο Ιδρυμα Ρόιτερς η
οργάνωση Care. Αλλά και στη Μοζαμβίκη ή το Μαλάουι γυναίκες και κορίτσια
που μετά βίας επιβιώνουν αναγκάζονται να καταφεύγουν στο σεξ για να
βρουν φαγητό.
Το
νότιο κέρας της Αφρικής έχει γνωρίσει τα χαμηλότερα επίπεδα βροχής από
το 1981, καθώς λόγω της κλιματικής αλλαγής και σύμφωνα με τα Ηνωμένα
Εθνη στην περιοχή κάπου 12 εκατομμύρια άνθρωποι βρίσκονται αντιμέτωποι
με το φάσμα της πείνας.
Η ξηρασία από τη μια και από την άλλη οι
πλημμύρες και η βαθιά οικονομική κρίση έχουν οδηγήσει σε μια «σιωπηλή
καταστροφή», ενώ η αυξανόμενη απόγνωση έχει αυξήσει κατακόρυφα τον
αριθμό των κοριτσιών που καταφεύγουν στο σεξ για να αγοράσουν ελάχιστα
τρόφιμα.
Οι γυναίκες και τα κορίτσια πλήττονται δυσανάλογα από την
κλιματική αλλαγή καθώς αυτή υπονομεύει βασικά τους δικαιώματα και
εντείνει έμφυλους κανόνες και αντιλήψεις που δημιουργούν αυξημένους
κινδύνους γι’ αυτές.
Ούτως ή άλλως, είναι εκείνες που περισσότερο
απ’ ό,τι οι άντρες ζουν στη φτώχεια, που φροντίζουν τις οικογένειες και
φέρνουν νερό και φαγητό, ενώ σπάνια κατέχουν γη παρότι κυριαρχούν στην
παραγωγή τροφίμων. Το να πωλούν το σώμα τους για λίγες δεκάρες είναι
μόνο μία από τις πιο ακραίες συνέπειες της διατροφικής επισφάλειας.
Συχνά,
όταν η πείνα θεριεύει, τα κορίτσια αναγκάζονται να εγκαταλείψουν το
σχολείο για να βοηθήσουν τις οικογένειές τους να βρουν τρόφιμα ή να
φέρουν κάποιο εισόδημα. Η επισιτιστική κρίση έχει αυξήσει τα περιστατικά
βιασμών, όπως συμβαίνει στην Αγκόλα, καθώς, για να βρουν καθαρό νερό
και κάτι φαγώσιμο, κορίτσια και γυναίκες περπατούν μεγάλες αποστάσεις
στα δάση, όπου οι κίνδυνοι επιθέσεων είναι πολλαπλάσιοι. Οπως αυξάνουν
και οι γάμοι ανήλικων κοριτσιών, που δίνονται πρόθυμα από τους γονείς
τους σε γαμπρούς με αντάλλαγμα χρήμα ή ζώα ή απλώς για να εξοικονομηθεί
ένα πιάτο φαγητό.
Είναι ενδεικτικό πως, σύμφωνα με τον Διεθνή
Ερυθρό Σταυρό, η κρίση έχει οδηγήσει σε μεγάλη αύξηση των παιδικών γάμων
όχι μόνο στην Αγκόλα αλλά και σε Ζιμπάμπουε, Ζάμπια, Λεσότο και
Ναμίμπια.
Ντροπιαστικές εικόνες γυναικών, κάποιες με τα παιδιά τους αγκαλιά, να
στοιβάζονται μέρα νύχτα έξω από την πρεσβεία της Αιθιοπίας εν μέσω της
κρίσης του κορονοϊού, συνεχίζουν να έρχονται από τον Λίβανο.
«Αν δεν έκανα σεξ μαζί του, θα με έδιωχνε από το διαμέρισμα. Είμαι μόνη
μητέρα, δεν είχα επιλογή. Δεν ήθελα να βρεθώ στον δρόμο», καταγγέλλει
σε ανάρτηση της γυναίκα για τον ιδιοκτήτη του σπιτιού που...
Τουλάχιστον 500.000 κορίτσια που έχουν υποστεί ακρωτηριασμό των
γεννητικών τους οργάνων, μία πρακτική βάναυση, απάνθρωπη και παράνομη,
ζουν πλέον ως παιδιά της προσφυγιάς στην Ευρώπη, ενώ δεν είναι λίγα
τα...
Στην Αφρική, όπου ανήκουν οι εννέα από τις δέκα χώρες του κόσμου με τα
μεγαλύτερα ποσοστά παιδικών γάμων, πόλεμοι και ξηρασίες που καταστρέφουν
το βιος εκατομμυρίων οικογενειών, εξωθούν πολλούς γονείς να...
Η Μαχίρα ήταν οκτώ ετών όταν μια συντοπίτισσα της οικογένειάς της
εμφανίστηκε στον προσφυγικό καταυλισμό των Ροχίνγκια όπου είχαν
καταφύγει κι έπεισε τους γονείς της να της επιτρέψουν να φροντίσει
-έναντι μιας...
23 Ιουνίου: Διεθνής Ημέρα Χηρών • Εκατομμύρια χήρες υφίστανται διώξεις,
περιθωριοποίηση και αποστέρηση κάθε δικαιώματος, πραγματικότητα που
επιδεινώνεται καθώς οι συρράξεις στον πλανήτη εντείνονται αυξάνοντας...
En.wikipedia The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longestriver in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. The area of its basin is 1,390,000 square kilometres (540,000 sq mi),[1][2] slightly less than half of the Nile's. The 2,574-kilometre-long river (1,599 mi) arises in Zambia and flows through eastern Angola, along the north-eastern border of Namibia and the northern border of Botswana, then along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, where it crosses the country to empty into the Indian Ocean. The Zambezi's most noted feature is Victoria Falls. Other notable falls include the Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and Ngonye Falls, near Sioma in Western Zambia. There are two main sources of hydroelectric power on the river, the Kariba Dam, which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique, which provides power to Mozambique and South Africa. There are additional two smaller power stations along the Zambezi River in Zambia, one at Victoria Falls and the other one near Kalene Hill in Ikelenge District.
The river rises in a black marshy dambo in dense undulating miombo woodland 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of Mwinilunga and 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Ikelenge in the Ikelenge District of North-Western Province, Zambia at about 1,524 metres (5,000 ft) above sea level.[3] The area around the source is a national monument, forest reserve and Important Bird Area.[4] Eastward of the source, the watershed between the Congo and Zambezi basins
is a well-marked belt of high ground, running nearly east-west and
falling abruptly to the north and south. This distinctly cuts off the
basin of the Lualaba
(the main branch of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi. In the
neighborhood of the source the watershed is not as clearly defined, but
the two river systems do not connect.[5] The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast broken-edged plateau 900–1200 m high, composed in the remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.
Upper Zambezi
The river flows to the southwest into Angola for about 240 kilometres (150 mi), then is joined by sizeable tributaries such as the Luena and the Chifumage flowing from highlands to the north-west.[5]
It turns south and develops a floodplain, with extreme width variation
between the dry and rainy seasons. It enters dense evergreen Cryptosepalum dry forest, though on its western side, Western Zambezian grasslands also occur. Where it re-enters Zambia it is nearly 400 metres (1,300 ft) wide in the rainy season and flows rapidly, with rapids ending in the Chavuma Falls,
where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The river drops about
400 metres (1,300 ft) in elevation from its source at 1,500 metres
(4,900 ft) to the Chavuma Falls at 1,100 metres (3,600 ft), in a
distance of about 400 kilometres (250 mi). From this point to the
Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by
another 180 metres (590 ft) in a distance of around 800 kilometres
(500 mi). The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the Kabompo River in the northwestern province of Zambia. A major advantage of the Kabompo River was irrigation. The savanna through which the river has flowed gives way to a wide floodplain, studded with Borassusfan palms. A little farther south is the confluence with the Lungwebungu River. This is the beginning of the Barotse Floodplain,
the most notable feature of the upper Zambezi, but this northern part
does not flood so much and includes islands of higher land in the
middle. Thirty kilometres below the confluence of the Lungwebungu
the country becomes very flat, and the typical Barotse Floodplain
landscape unfolds, with the flood reaching a width of 25 km in the rainy season. For more than 200 km downstream the annual flood cycle dominates the natural environment and human life, society and culture.
Eighty kilometres further down, the Luanginga,
which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the
Zambezi. A few kilometres higher up on the east the main stream is
joined in the rainy season by overflow of the Luampa/Luena system.[5] A short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is Lealui, one of the capitals of the Lozi people who populate the Zambian region of Barotseland in Western Province. The chief of the Lozi maintains one of his two compounds at Lealui; the other is at Limulunga,
which is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy
season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event,
celebrated as one of Zambia's best known festivals, the Kuomboka.
After Lealui, the river turns to south-south-east. From the east
it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west is
without major tributaries for 240 km. Before this, the Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's Caprivi Strip.[5] The strip projects from the main body of Namibia, and results from the colonial era: it was added to German South-West Africa expressly to give Germany access to the Zambezi.
Below the junction of the Cuando River
and the Zambezi the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is
broad and shallow, and flows slowly, but as it flows eastward towards
the border of the great central plateau of Africa it reaches a chasm
into which the Victoria Falls plunge.
Middle Zambezi
Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi
The Victoria Falls
are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below
them the river continues to flow due east for about 200 kilometres
(120 mi), cutting through perpendicular walls of basalt 20 to 60 metres (66 to 200 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 metres (660 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through the Batoka Gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. It has been described as one of the world's most spectacular whitewater trips, a tremendous challenge for kayakers
and rafters alike. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids which
end 240 km (150 mi) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river
drops 250 metres (820 ft).
At this point, the river enters Lake Kariba, created in 1959 following the completion of the Kariba Dam. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe.
The Luangwa and the Kafue
are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue
joins the main river in a quiet deep stream about 180 metres (590 ft)
wide. From this point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and
the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37'
S) it enters Mozambique. The middle Zambezi ends where the river enters Lake Cahora Bassa
(also spelled Cabora Bassa). Formerly the site of dangerous rapids
known as Kebrabassa, the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of
the Cahora Bassa Dam.
Lower Zambezi
The
lower Zambezi's 650 km from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is
navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the Lupata Gorge,
320 km from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here
it is scarcely 200 m wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 km wide, flowing
gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low
and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad fast-flowing river. About 160 km from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Malawi through the Shire River. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a delta.[5]
Each of the four primary distributaries, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe, is
obstructed by a sand bar. A more northerly branch, called the Chinde
mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 m at the entrance and 4 m
further in, and is the branch used for navigation. 100 km further north
is a river called the Quelimane, after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season.
Delta
The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river.[citation needed] Before the dams were built seasonal flooding of the Zambezi had
quite a different impact on the ecosystems of the delta from today as it
brought nutritious fresh water down to the Indian Ocean coastal wetlands. The lower Zambezi experienced a small flood surge early in the dry season as rain in the Gwembe catchment and north-eastern Zimbabwe rushed through while rain in the Upper Zambezi, Kafue, and Lake Malawi basins, and Luangwa
to a lesser extent, is held back by swamps and floodplains. The
discharge of these systems contributed to a much larger flood in March
or April, with a mean monthly maximum for April of 6,700 cubic metres
(240,000 cu ft) per second at the delta. The record flood was more than
three times as big, 22,500 cubic metres (790,000 cu ft) per second being
recorded in 1958. By contrast the discharge at the end of the dry
season averaged just 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second.[1] In the 1960s and 1970s the building of dams changed that pattern
completely. Downstream the mean monthly minimum–maximum was 500 cubic
metres (18,000 cu ft) to 6,000 cubic metres (210,000 cu ft) per second;
now it is 1,000 cubic metres (35,000 cu ft) to 3,900 cubic metres
(140,000 cu ft) per second. Medium-level floods especially, of the kind
to which the ecology of the lower Zambezi was adapted, happen less often
and have a shorter duration. As with the Itezhi-Tezhi Dam's deleterious effects on the Kafue Flats, this has the following effects:
fish, bird and other wildlife feeding and breeding patterns disrupted
Annotated view of the Zambezi river delta from space.[7]
NASA false-colour image of the upper Zambezi and Barotse (Balozi) floodplain during an extreme flood in 2003.
The Zambezi Delta has extensive seasonally- and permanently-flooded
grasslands, savannas, and swamp forests. Together with the floodplains
of the Buzi, Pungwe, and Save rivers, the Zambezi's floodplains make up the World Wildlife Fund's Zambezian coastal flooded savannaecoregion in Mozambique. The flooded savannas lie close to the Indian Ocean coast. Mangroves fringe the delta's shoreline.
Although the dams have stemmed some of the annual flooding
of the lower Zambezi and caused the area of floodplain to be greatly
reduced they have not removed flooding completely. They cannot control
extreme floods, they have only made medium-level floods less frequent.
When heavy rain in the lower Zambezi combines with good runoff upstream,
massive floods still happen and the wetlands are still an important
habitat. However, as well as the shrinking of the wetlands further
severe damage to wildlife was caused by uncontrolled hunting of animals
such as buffalo and waterbuck during the Mozambique Civil War
and now the conflict has ceased it is likely the floodplains will
become more populated, and further damming has also been discussed. The
only protected area of floodplain is the Marromeu Game Reserve near the city of Beira.[citation needed] Although the region has seen a reduction in the populations of the large mammals, it is still home to some including the reedbuck and migrating eland. Carnivores found here include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and side-striped jackal (Canis adustus). The floodplains are a haven for migratory waterbirds including pintails, garganey, African openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus), saddle-billed stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis), wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus), and great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus).[8] Reptiles include Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), Nile monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) and African rock python (Python sebae), the endemic Pungwe worm snake (Leptotyphlops pungwensis) and three other snakes that are nearly endemic; floodplain water snake (Lycodonomorphus whytei obscuriventris), dwarf wolf snake (Lycophidion nanus) and swamp viper (Proatheris).[8] There are a number of endemic butterflies.
The Zambezi's delta
The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia
Water is black in this false-colour image of the Zambezi flood plain
Detailed true-colour image shows the stark eastern edge of the Zambezi floodplain
Climate
The north of the Zambezi basin
has mean annual rainfall of 1100 to 1400 mm which declines towards the
south, reaching about half that figure in the south-west. The rain falls
in a 4-to-6-month summer rainy season when the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone moves over the basin from the north between October and March. Evaporation
rates are high (1600 mm-2300 mm) and much water is lost this way in
swamps and floodplains, especially in the south-west of the basin.[9]
Wildlife
Hippopotamus in the Zambezi River
The river supports large populations of many animals. Hippopotamuses are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, as well as Nile crocodiles. Monitor lizards are found in many places. Birds are abundant, with species including heron, pelican, egret, lesser flamingo and African fish eagle present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as buffalo, zebras, giraffes, elephants. The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to the river. Important species include cichlids which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish, yellowfish and other large species. The bull shark is sometimes known as the Zambezi shark after the river, but is found around the world.
Tributaries Upper Zambezi: 507,200 km2, discharges 1044 m3/s at Victoria Falls, comprising:
Northern Highlands catchment, 222,570 km2, 850 m3/s at Lukulu:
The Okavango Basin is not included in the figures because it only occasionally overflows to any extent into the Zambezi.
Due to the rainfall distribution, northern tributaries contribute
much more water than southern ones, for example: the Northern Highlands
catchment of the upper Zambezi contributes 25%, Kafue 8%, Luangwa and
Shire Rivers 16% each, total 65% of Zambezi discharge. The large Cuando
basin in the south-west on the other hand contributes only about 2 m3/s
because most is lost through evaporation in its swamp systems. The
1940s and 1950s were particularly wet decades in the basin. Since 1975,
it has been drier, the average discharge being only 70% of that for the
years 1930 to 1958.[1]
Geological history
Victoria Falls National Park marker
Up to the Late Pliocene or Pleistocene (more than two million years ago), the Upper Zambezi river used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan to the Limpopo River.[10] The change of the river course is the result of epeirogenic movements that uplifted the surface at the present-day water divide between both rivers.[11] Meanwhile, 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) east, a western tributary of the Shire River in the East African Rift's southern extension through Malawi eroded a deep valley on its western escarpment. At the rate of a few cm per year, this river, the Middle Zambezi, started cutting back the bed of its river towards the west, aided by grabens (rift valleys) forming along its course in an east-west axis. As it did so it captured a number of south-flowing rivers such as the Luangwa and Kafue.
Eventually the large lake trapped at Makgadikgadi (or a tributary
of it) was captured by the Middle Zambezi cutting back towards it, and
emptied eastwards. The Upper Zambezi was captured as well. The Middle
Zambezi was about 300 metres (980 ft) lower than the Upper Zambezi, and a
high waterfall formed at the edge of the basalt plateau across which
the upper river flows. This was the first Victoria Falls, somewhere down the Batoka Gorge near where Lake Kariba is now.[12]
History
Etymology
The first European to come across the Zambezi river was Vasco da Gama, in January 1498, who anchored at what he called Rio dos Bons Sinais ("River of Good Omens"), now the Quelimane
or Quá-Qua, a small river on the northern end of the delta, which at
that time was connected by navigable channels to the Zambezi river
proper (the connection silted up by the 1830s). In a few of the oldest
maps, the entire river is denoted as such. But already by the early
1500s, a new name emerged, the Cuama river (sometimes "Quama" or "Zuama"). Cuama was the local name given by the dwellers of the Swahili Coast
for an outpost located on one the southerly islands of the delta (near
the Luabo channel). Most old nautical maps denote the Luabo entry as
Cuama, the entire delta as the "rivers of Cuama" and the Zambezi river
proper as the "Cuama River". Nonetheless, already in 1552, Portuguese chronicler João de Barros notes that the same Cuama river was called Zembere by the inland people of Monomatapa.[13] The Portuguese Dominican friar João dos Santos, visiting Monomatapa in 1597, reported it as Zambeze (Bantu languages frequently shifts between z and r) and inquired into the origins of the name; he was told it was named after a people.
Map by Willem Janszoon Blaeu, dated 1635, showing the course of the Zambezi, and its source in a great lake.
"The River Cuama is by them called
Zambeze; the head whereof is so farre within Land that none of them know
it, but by tradition of their Progenitors say it comes from a Lake in
the midst of the continent which yeelds also other great Rivers, divers
ways visiting the Sea. They call it Zambeze, of a Nation of Cafres
dwelling neere that Lake which are so called." —J. Santos Ethiopia Oriental, 1609[14]
Thus the term "Zambezi" is after a people who live by a great lake to
the north. The most likely candidates are the "M'biza", or Bisa people
(in older texts given as Muisa, Movisa, Abisa, Ambios and other
variations), a Bantu people who live in what is now central-eastern Zambia, between the Zambezi River and Lake Bangweolo (at the time, before the Lunda invasion, the Bisa would have likely stretched further north, possibly to Lake Tanganyika). The Bisa had a reputation as great cloth traders throughout the region.[15] In a curious note, the Goese-born Portuguese trader Manuel Caetano Pereira, who traveled to the Bisa homelands in 1796 was surprised to be shown a second, separate river referred to as the "Zambezi".[16] This "other Zambezi" that puzzled Pereira is most likely what modern sources spell the Chambeshi River in northern Zambia.
The Monomatapa notion (reported by Santos) that the Zambezi was
sourced from a great internal lake might be a reference to one of the African Great Lakes. One of the names reported by early explorers for Lake Malawi was "Lake Zambre" (probably a corruption of "Zambezi"), possibly because Lake Malawi is connected to the lower Zambezi via the Shire River.
The Monomatapa story resonated with the old European notion, drawn from
classical antiquity, that all the great African rivers—the Nile, the
Senegal, the Congo, now the Zambezi, too—were all sourced from the same
great internal lake. The Portuguese were also told that the Mozambican
Espirito Santo "river" (actually an estuary formed by the Umbeluzi, Matola and Tembe rivers) was sourced from a lake (hence its outlet became known as Delagoa Bay).
As a result, several old maps depict the Zambezi and the "Espirito
Santo" rivers converging deep in the interior, at the same lake.
However, the Bisa-derived etymology is not without dispute. In
1845, W.D. Cooley, examining Pereira's notes, concluded the term
"Zambezi" derives not from the Bisa people, but rather from the Bantu
term "mbege"/"mbeze" ("fish"), and consequently it probably means merely
"river of fish".[17]David Livingstone, who reached the upper Zambezi in 1853, refers to it as "Zambesi" but also makes note of the local name "Leeambye" used by the Lozi people,
which he says means "large river or river par excellence". Livingstone
records other names for the Zambezi—Luambeji, Luambesi, Ambezi, Ojimbesi
and Zambesi—applied by different peoples along its course, and asserts
they "all possess a similar signification and express the native idea of
this magnificent stream being the main drain of the country".[18] In Portuguese records, the "Cuama River" term disappeared and gave way to the term "Sena River" (Rio de Sena), a reference to the Swahili (and later Portuguese) upriver trade station at Sena. In 1752, the Zambezi delta, under the name "Rivers of Sena" (Rios de Sena) formed a colonial administrative district of Portuguese Mozambique. But common usage of "Zambezi" led eventually to a royal decree in 1858 officially renaming the district "Zambézia".
Exploration of the river
Satellite image showing Victoria Falls and subsequent series of zigzagging gorges
The Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the Empire of Monomotapa, and the course of the river, as well as the position of lakes Ngami and Nyasa, were given broadly accurately in early maps. These were probably constructed from Arab information.[19] The first European to visit the inland Zambezi river was the Portuguese degredadoAntónio Fernandes in 1511 and again in 1513, with the objective of reporting on commercial conditions and activities of the interior of Central Africa.
The final report of these explorations revealed the importance of the
ports of the upper Zambezi to the local trade system, in particular to
East African gold trade.[20] The first recorded exploration of the upper Zambezi was made by David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechuanaland
between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he descended the
Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey found the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by John Kirk,
Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the
Falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and reached
Lake Malawi.[19] For the next 35 years very little exploration of the river took place.
Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878.[19] In 1884 the Scottish-born Plymouth Brethren missionary Frederick Stanley Arnot traveled over the height of land between the watersheds of the Zambezi and the Congo, and identified the source of the Zambezi.[21]
He considered that the nearby high and cool Kalene Hill was a particularly suitable place for a mission.[22]
Arnot was accompanied by the Portuguese trader and army officer António da Silva Porto.[23]
In 1889 the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was seen. Two expeditions led by Major A. St Hill Gibbons
in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration
begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river.[19]
Two local people in the Zambezi river near Victoria falls, Zambia.
Economy
The
population of the Zambezi river valley is estimated to be about 32
million. About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on agriculture, and the upper river's flood plains provide good agricultural land. Communities by the river fish it extensively, and many people
travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to
the river levy unofficial 'fish taxes' on people taking Zambezi fish to
other parts of the country. As well as fishing for food, game fishing is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between Mongu and Livingstone, several safari lodges cater for tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to aquaria. The river valley is rich in mineral deposits and fossil fuels, and coal mining is important in places. The dams along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the hydroelectric
power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are
also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over
100,000 visitors annually, with 141,929 visitors reported in 2015.[24]Mana Pools and Lake Kariba also draw substantial tourist numbers.
The river is frequently interrupted by rapids and so has never been an important long-distance transport route. David Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition attempted to open up the river to navigation by paddle steamer, but was defeated by the Cahora Bassa rapids. Along some stretches, it is often more convenient to travel by canoe
along the river rather than on the unimproved roads which are often in
very poor condition due to being regularly submerged in flood waters,
and many small villages along the banks of the river are only accessible
by boat. In the 1930s and 40s a paddle barge service operated on the
stretch between the Katombora Rapids, about 50 kilometres (31 mi)
upstream from Livingstone, and the rapids just upstream from Katima
Mulilo. However, depending on the water level, boats could be paddled
through—Lozi
paddlers, a dozen or more in a boat, could deal with most of them—or
they could be pulled along the shore or carried around the rapids, and
teams of oxen pulled barges 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) over land around the
Ngonye Falls.[25] Road, rail and other crossings of the river, once few and far
between, are proliferating. They are, in order from the river's source:
Cazombo road bridge, Angola, bombed in the civil war and not yet reconstructed[26]
Lubosi Imwiko II Bridge linking the towns of Mongu and Kalabo, a new 1,005 meter long concrete/steel road bridge including 38.5 km of embanked highway through Barotse Floodplain constructed between 2011 and 2016 by Chinese company (2nd attempt) of 1.2 trillion kwacha.[27][28]
Kazungula Bridge—in August 2007 a deal was announced to replace the Kazungula Ferry, one of the largest river ferries in Southern Africa, with a road bridge where the river is 430 metres (1,410 ft) wide
Dona Ana Bridge,
originally railway but converted to single-lane road, (1935), the
longest at 3 kilometres (1.9 mi), since late 2009 it is again a railway
bridge, passenger and freight trains are again running across it and
from 2011 on the railway line over this bridge may convey several
million of tonnes of Tete coal to the port of Beira.
Caia Bridge—construction
started in 2007 of a 2.3-kilometre (1.4 mi) road bridge to replace the
Caia ferry, which, with Kazungula, is the largest ferry across the river
There are a number of small pontoon ferries across the river in Angola, western Zambia, and Mozambique, notably between Mongu and Kalabo. Above Mongu in years following poor rainy seasons the river can be forded at one or two places.
In tourist areas, such as Victoria Falls and Kariba, short-distance tourist boats take visitors along the river.
Ecology
Lake Cahora Bassa in Mozambique, one of the river's major sources of hydroelectric energy
Pollution
Sewage effluent is a major cause of water pollution
around urban areas, as inadequate water treatment facilities in all the
major cities of the region force them to release untreated sewage into
the river. This has resulted in eutrophication of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor hygiene such as cholera, typhus and dysentery.
Effects of dams
The
construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had
a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi
region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam
was completed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single
flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two
years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40%
reduction in the coverage of mangroves, greatly increased erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of prawns off the mouth due to the reduction in emplacement of silt and associate nutrients. Wetlandecosystems
downstream of the dam shrank considerably. Wildlife in the delta was
further threatened by uncontrolled hunting during the civil war in Mozambique.
As
of 2017 the situation of overfishing in the upper Zambezi and its
tributaries was considered dire, in part due to weak enforcement of the
respective fisheries acts and regulations. The fish stocks of Lake Liambezi in the eastern Caprivi were found to be totally depleted, and surveys indicated a decline in the whole Zambezi-Kwando-Chobe river system. Illegal fishing (i.a. by foreign nationals employed by Namibians)
and commercially minded individuals, exploited the resources to the
detriment of local markets and the communities whose culture and economy
depend on these resources.[31] Namibian officials have consequently banned monofilament
nets, and imposed a closing period of about 3 months every year to
allow the fish to breed. They also appointed village fish guards and the
Kayasa channel in the Impalila
conservancy area was declared a fisheries reserve. The Namibian
ministry also promotes aquaculture and plans to distribute thousands of
fingerlings to registered small-scale fish farmers of the region.[31]
EUS outbreak
On 14 September 2007, epizooticulcerative syndrome (EUS) killed hundreds of sore-covered fish in the river. Zambia
Agriculture Minister Ben Kapita asked experts to investigate the
outbreak to probe the cause to find out if the disease can be
transmitted to humans.[32]
Major towns
Along
much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important
towns and cities along its course include the following:
Bento C.M., Beilfuss R. (2003), Wattled Cranes, Waterbirds, and Wetland Conservation in the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique,
report for the Biodiversity Foundation for Africa for the IUCN -
Regional Office for Southern Africa: Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation
and Resource Utilisation Project.
Bourgeois S., Kocher T., Schelander P. (2003), Case study: Zambezi river basin, ETH Seminar: Science and Politics of International Freshwater Management 2003/04
Davies B.R., Beilfuss R., Thoms M.C. (2000), "Cahora Bassa
retrospective, 1974–1997: effects of flow regulation on the Lower
Zambezi River," Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnologie, 27, 1–9
Dunham KM (1994), The effect of drought on the large mammal populations of Zambezi riverine woodlands, Journal of Zoology, v. 234, p. 489–526
Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc. (2004). World reference atlas. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN0-7566-0481-8
Wynn S. (2002), "The Zambezi River - Wilderness and Tourism", International Journal of Wilderness, 8, 34.
H. C. N. Ridley: “Early History of Road Transport in Northern Rhodesia”, The Northern Rhodesia Journal, Vol 2 No 5 (1954)—Re Zambezi River Transport Service at Katombora.
Fr. J. dos Santos (1609), Ethiopia Oriental e varia historia de cousas Notaveis do Oriente, Pt. III. English translation is from Samuel Purchas's 1625 Haklyutus Posthumus, (1905) ed., Glasgow, vol. 10: p.220-21
The connection between Santos/Monomatapa "Zambezi" and the "M'biza" is suggested in Cooley (1845).
"Notícias
dadas por Manoel Caetano Pereira, comerciante, que se entranhou pelo
interior da África", as published in José Acúrsio das Neves (1830) Considerações Políticas e Comerciais sobre os Descobrimentos e Possessões na África e na Ásia. Lisbon: Imprensa Regia. p.373
W.D.
Cooley (1845) "The Geography of N'yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern
Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the
Quanza in Angola to the Zambezi in the government of Mozambique", Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, p.185-235.
David Livingstone (1857) Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (p.208)
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cana, Frank (1911). "Zambezi". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 951–953.
Newitt, Malyn (2005). A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400-1668. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN0-203-32404-8.
Howard, Dr. J. Keir (2005). "Arnot, Frederick Stanley". Dictionary of African Christian Biography. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 